
Book >Jx3 

I8?0 



j?H 



ORAL TRAmiNG LESSONS 

IN 

NATURAL SCIENCE 

AND 
KMBRAC'ING THE >;UDJECTS OF 

ASTRONOMY, AXATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, ClIEMISTKY, 

MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY, NATURAL 

PHILOSOPHY, THE ARTS, HISTORY, 

DEVELOPMENT OF WORDS, ETC. 

ISTKKDED FOK 

TEACHERS OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 

AND ALSO 

FOR PRIVATE INSTRUCTION. 

By II. BARNARD, Principal Lincoln School, 

MINNEArOLIS. 



MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. 

GEO. .A.. EIDES, E="U"BXiISIIEE<. 

1870. 






x'^ 



Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1870, by 

H. BARNARD, 

Id the Clerk's Office of tho District Court of the United States for the District 

of ^Minnesota. 



INTRODUCTORY AND EXPLANATORY. 



It need hardly be stated that the Author's object in 
this work is to present a concise but comprehensive course 
in the most important Natural Sciences to those who have 
not the means of purchasing separate works upon each, 
and who may not have had the opportunity of acquiring 
a knowledge of them during their school-days. 

But this is not the only object. The information is 
all arranged in the probable course that a lesson would 
take, were the teacher imparting it in the school-room. 

Not only is the material furnished, and arranged in 
this manner, but the process of developing new words and 
applying them has also received particular care and 
attention. 

The mode of treating inattentive or idle pupils is also 
shown during the course of the lesson. 

By a careful previous study of the lesson any Teacher 
of ordinary ability may very successfully give either of the 
lessons of the course ; but if preferred the book may be 
judiciously used in the hands of the Teacher as a guide. 

Perhaps none of the lessons will take the exact course 
here given. You must inevitably follow where the pupils' 
answers lead you ; but you must at the same time lead 
their thoughts in the generel direction indicated. 

The six prominent features of these lessons are : 

1st, Elliptical Answers given by all in concert. 

2d, Individual Questions and Answers. 



IV INTRODUCTORY AND EXPLANATORY. 

3d, Complete Statements by Individuals as the lesson 
progresses. 

4th, Analogy and Familiar Illustrations. 

5th, The writing of all new words on the blackboard, 
these words being in small capitals. 

6th, A rapid general review at the close, with the 
object of putting the whole lesson in such a form as will 
connect all its parts so as to form a commencement and 
a termination. 

The elliptical answer must never be a mere guess. 
Only one word should be able to supply the ellipsis. It 
should never be part of a word. Thus, instead of saying 
(see No. xxxviii) " some bodies are tumple and others are 

com .pound," we rather say "some bodies are simple 

and others Bxe*.....compotindy If it is not entirely by the 
scholar's own exercise of thought, the object of the lesson 
is not attained ; nor is it if the answer is a mere guess. 

At the word immediately preceding the ellipsis the rising 
inflection of voice should be used to indicate when you 
wish a word answered. In all individual questions, require 
the hands to be raised by those who can answer, and call 
on one. Whenever a question is asked no more than one 
should be allowed to speak ; but at an elliptical answer, 
require every voice in the room to be heard. 

Kemember that the question pumps up the water 
from the well, but it requires the elliptical answering 
to lead it on in the proper direction. 

All words in italics are pronounced by scholars ; 
those in ordinary letters or capitals are to be given by the 
Teacher. 

Write all new words, or those in small capitals on the 
black-board. 

Never use a term that has not been well explained, 



INTRODUCTORY AND EXPLANATORY. V 

aud whose meaning is not clearly compreliended by the 
pupil. Anglo Saxon words are always the best. 

Never do injury to the sensitive feelings of the pupil 
by saying " No. You are wrong," but train him uncon- 
sciously, by the natural process, to that which is correct. 

This fact deserves prominence : A lesson is never 

GIVEN till it is RECEIVED. 

Be careful, as each point is gained in the lesson, to 
require some one, or all, to give the full and complete 
statement in its simplest form, before going on to the next 
point. This should be done at the end of each paragraph, 
at least. These statements are omitted in nearly all the 
lessons given in this volume, as it would make the work 
unnecessarily voluminous. A sufficient number of examples 
will be found throughout the course to indicate the manner 
in which it is done. 

When any considerable number of scholars fail to do 
this, cause them to {|uietly take out their slates and v/rite 
it from the dictation to some attentive scholar. The 
younger the scholar who dictates it, the better the effect. 
Then cause them to read it from their slates, and after- 
wards to state it, as required at first. 

It is always preferable to have one point of the lesson 
well understood than to go over the ground of a whole 
lesson without any distinct idea of the several steps 
contained in it. Quality first ; Quantity afterwards. 

Each pupil should also, at the close of a lesson be able to 
make all the statements contained in it successively. 

As often as once each week, the material contained in some 
previous lesson should be made the subject of a com))0- 
sition to be written by all. This will be found a most 
profitable and interesting work. Let them introduce all 
other facts or conclusions connected with their subject. 



VI INTRODUCTORY AND EXPLANATORY. 

NORMAL SCHOOLS 

Are now being established in every part of the United 
States and the British Dominions for the express purpose 
of creating good Teachers from good Scholars, Teaching, 
being an Art as well as Carpentering, Weaving, Mining, or 
Agriculture, requires a preparatory apprenticeship. If the 
present work gives even a very limited assistance to the 
work of furnishing the Teacher with the material and the 
manner of imparting, the Author will consider that his 
efforts are not without success. 

Not an unimportant part of its mission will be its use 
at the family fireside. One may be selected to act as 
Teacher and conduct the lesson with the other members of 
the family as pupils. This will be found a most gratifying 
and instructive employment during otherwise unoccupied 

time. 

The work, however, is designed particularly for public 
schools. The lessons may be conducted with all the scholars 
together, which is preferable, or with a large class composed 
of all who are capable of answering. 



COKTENTS 



LESSON I. 

PAGE. 

Natural Science — Climate — Its Elements 1 

LESSON II. 
Natural History — Habits of the Cat 4 

LESSON III. 
Form of the Earth — Proot by Circumnavigation 7 

LESSON IV. 
Physiology — Organs and Functions 11 

LESSON V. 
Natural Science — Heat and its Effects 14 

LESSON VI. 

Natural Science — Atmospheric Pressure 16 

LESSON VII. 

Astronomy — Motions of the Earth 19 

LESSON VIIL 
Physiology — The Five Senses 22 

LESSON IX. 
Natural Science — Atmospheric Pressure 25 

LESSON X. 
Natural Science — The three forms of Matter 27 

LESSON XI. 
Chemistry — Composition of the Air 31 



Till CONTENTS. 

LESSON XII. 
Mental Science — Memory 34 

LESSON XIII. 
Ekymologv — Derivation — Words from Traho 37 

LESSON XIV. 

Natural Science — Sources of Heat 40 

LESSON XV. 
Physiology — The Nerves 43 

LESSON XVI. 
Mathematical Geography-Lines on the Earth's Surface 46 

LESSON XVII. 
Natural Science — Climate — Its Causes 49 

LESSON XVIII. 
Anatomy — The Osseous System 52 

LESSON XIX. 

Natural Science — Organic and Inorganic Bodies 55 

LESSON XX. 
Physiology — Circulation of the Blood 58 

LESSON XXI. 
Chemistry — Oxygen — Flame 61 

LESSON XXII. 
Physiology — Circulation of the Blood 64 

LESSON XXIII. 
Natural Science — Evaporation of Water 67 

LESSON XXIV. 
Astronomy — The Solar System 70 

LESSON XXV. 
Natural Science — Wind 73 



CONTENTS. IX 

LESSON XXVI. 

Physiology — Respiration 76 

LESSON XXVIL 

Natural Science — Transmission of Heat 79 

LESSON XXVIII. 

Astronomy — The Solar System 82 

LESSON XXIX. 

Natural Science — Light — Its Nature and Sources 85 

LESSON XXX. 

Natural Science — Sound 87 

LESSON XXXI. 

Etymology — Derivation — Words from Plico 90 

LESSON XXXII. 

Difference between Science and Art 93 

LESSON XXXIII. 

Nat'l Science — Mechanical Properties of Atmosphere.. 98 

LESSON XXXIV. 

Luxuries and Necessaries of Life 95 

LESSON XXXV. 

Natural History— The Camel 100 

LESSON XXXVL 

Natural Science — Why do Iron Ships Float ? 103 

LESSON XXXVII. 

Astronomy — Attraction of Gravitation 105 

LESSON XXXVIIL 

Chemistry — Simple and Compound Bodies 108 

LESSON XXXIX. 
Natural Science — Inertia 112 



X CONTENTS. 

LESSON XL. 
Human Anatomy — Arteries of the Body 114 

LESSON XLI. 
The Arts — "Weaving 118 

LESSON XLIL 

History — Career of Napoleon 121 

LESSON XLIIL 
Chemistry — Acids, Bases, and Salts 121 

Lesson XLIV. 
History — Five Great Nations of Antiquity 127 

Lesson XLV. 
Manufactures — Brocaded Silk — Jacquard Loom 129 

Lesson XLVI. 
Astronomy — The Solar System — Asteroids — Orbits.... 132 

Lesson XLVIl. 

The Arts — Keduction of Metals from their Ores 134 

Lesson XLVIII. 
Natural Science — Trade Winds 137 

Lesson XLIX. 

Chemistry — Generation of Carbonic Acid 139 

Lesson L. 

Natural Science — Light and Heat — Eefraction, Keflec- 

tion and Absorption 142 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON 

NO. I. 



Natural Science — Climate — Its Effects. 



Raise Lands all who can tell me wliat is meant by Cli- 
mate. Does no one know ? We will see. 

In countries where the sun shines perpendicularly, that 

is, directly over head, vie say that they have a very 

hot climate. Then when we speak about climate, we 

mean the heat or cold. Now raise hands those who 

know a word that means heat or cold. When we speak of 
the heat or cold of the air, for example, what word is 
generally used ? George? Temperature. That is cor- 
rect. Let me hear this word from all Tempenxiture. 

Again Temperature. The temperature of the air, then, 

means whether it is hot or cold. Annie, repeat that 

sentence. (She repeats. If she cannot, from inattention, 
cause her to leave her seat and write it on the slate two or 
three times after asking some one else.) Eddie, if I speak 
of the temperature of the water in the river, to what do I 
refer ? You mean whether it is hot or cold. Correct. 

Now, when the air is very hot the temperature is said to 

be very ? I will tell you. It is said to be very high. 

When the air has a high temperature then you mean that 

it is very hot. What would it mean to say thatit is very 

low? Hands up. Willie? Very cold. Make the whole 

statement £t/ a loiv temperature loe mean that it is veiry 

cold. Very well indeed. You would say, for instance, 



2 [Lesson I. 

that ice has a very low tem.peri'aiwe, and that red hot 

iron has a very high temperature. What wovald you say 

ot the temperature ol melted lead ? Hands up. Fred ? 

Melted lead has a very high temperature. When you 

speak of climate, then, one thing that you mean is the 

temperature, that is the heat or cold. 

Now does it mean anything else ? Suppose that it hardly 

ever rained, what then? It xoould he a dry climate. 

Yes, and climate will also mean whether it is dry or 

wet. I also wish you to give me one word for this. Hands 
up. What, none? The word I wanted was moisture. 

All repeat together tnoisture. Here, then, are two 

things. They are temperature and moisture which 

form the climate ol any country. 

There is something else meant when we speak of climate 

besides temperature and moisture. What is it? Did 

you ever hear of a windy climate, or a stormy climate ? 

Yes sir. Then the third thing in the climate of a country 

is the wind. We will call it Prevailing Winds. All 

answer .prevailing winds. Libbie, will you give us 

these three things;' Temperature, Moisture and Pre- 
vailing Winds. What about them? They form the 

climate of a country. Then you make the complete state- 
ment Charlie. (He makes it.) 

Now, in the next place, since these things make up a 

climate, they may be called its ? Well, let us see. The 

sounds that compose a word are called its elements. 

Correct, and those things that compose a loaf of bread 

could be called its elements. What are the elements 

of bread ? Alice ? Flour, water, salt and, yeast. Raise 

hands all who can give me the elements of mortar. Frank ? 

Lime, water, sand and hair. Of this book? Cora? 

Paver, ink, cloth and leather. And raise hands all 

who can tell me the elements of climate. You may tell 

me, George Temperature, Moisture and Prevailing 

Winds. And the elements are those things of which any- 
thing is made up or co7nposed. Before going on to 

the next point we will revise what we have said. The 

climate of a country consists of, 1st Temperature^ 

which means the Tieat or cold. 2d Moisture, or 



Lesson I.] 3 

whether it is wet or dry ; and 3d Preveiling winds. 

When it is cold the temperature is said to be ^ow, and 

when hot it is said to be high. Sam, give mean example 

of this Ice has a low temperature and steam has a high 

temperature. Yes, bnt you might have omitted the first 
word temperature. Repeat without using it. 

Now a country which is not too warm in summer nor 

too cold in winter has what kind of a climate? Tc7n- 

perate. (If not known carefully tell it.) A temperate 

cZ/'wafe means one that is neither too hot nor too 

cold. Kate, repeat that. (She repeats.) But when it is 
very cold in winter and very hot in summer, the climate is 

said to be? I will tell you if all listen attentively. 

It is said to be EXTREME. All repeat. It is said to be 

extreme. Again extrevie. What does an extreme cli- 
mate mean? Fannie? One that is either too hot or too 

coll. Yes but I want the complete statement An 

extreme climate is one that is either too hot or too cold. A 
temperate climate that is not too wet and stormy is also 

called SALUBRIOUS. All repeat Salubrious. This word 

means several things. When we say a climate is 

salubrious we mean that it is neither too hot nor too 

cold, which in one word would be temperate, and that 

it is not too wet and stormy. It might not even rain 

very much, but if it was foggy and damp, would it be 

salubrious? No sir. Raise hands all who can give me 

another word like salubrious ? I will give you one. Genial. 

All answer genial. A genial or salubrious climate 

is one that is in every way .fine or agreeable. Fred, 

repeat that last sentence. (He lepeats.) 

Now all answer promptly. By the climate we mean 

three things, 1st temperature, or the heat or 

coll, 2d moisture, or the state of being wet or dry^ 

and 3d .prevailing winds. Then the temperature may 

be high (gesture in a case like this) or low, which 

would mean hot or cold. Since these three things make 

up or compose climate they may be called its ele- 

uients. When a climate is too hot or too cold it \a said 

to be extreme, but if not it is temperate. If it is 

temperate and also not too stormy or moist, you would say 



4 [Lesson II. 

it was salubrious or genial. Or even if it has 

extremes, if it is conducive to good health we speak of it 
as salubrious and genial. 



OML TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. II. 



Natural History — Habits of the Cat. 



Now all sit upright and attend. When you are look- 
ing and LISTENING then you are attending. All answer 

promptly, 

All animals do not live in the same way. A horse 

does not get its food as a dog does, and a hen and a duck do 

not both live in the same .place or oiianner. But 

every animal is exactly fitted by the Creator for its way of 

living. Willie, repeat that Every animal is exactly 

fitted by the Creator /or its way of living. 

Now all may raise hands who can give me a better word 

than fitted. Lizzie? .formed. Very good. I now 

want another. Hands up. George? Arra7iged. Yes, 

another, 'FrSiukl...... Fixed. Yes, all these words would 

do. We will repeat them in order. Every animal \b 

exactly Utted or formed or arranged ov 

fixed for its way of living. But I will tell you a better 

word. It is ADAPTED. All pronounce it together 

adapted. We will use this word through the lesson. All 

animals are exactly adapted to their way of living. 

You may all now try and think of one word that means 
ways of living or doing anything. Can you not think of 
such a word ? Let us try if we can find one. A boy who 



Lesson II.J 5 

comes in late to school every day, we say, has formed a 

very bad habit. And a dog that barks at every one 

who passes has also formed a very had hahif, A boy 

who tells untruths has an exceedingly bad habit. Now 

we will use this word instead of ways of living. Every 

animal \^ exactly ada^^ted to its habits. All 

who can repeat it raise hands. (All should be able to if 

you have successfully given the lesson so far.) Jane? 

Every aimnal is exactly adapted to its habits. Correct. 
We are to sjDeak to-day of the habits of the cat. What 

does the cat eat ? Hands up. Annie? 3fice. Susan? 

Birds. William? Gophers and squirrel s. John? 

Rats. That will do. We may sny all kinds of small 

anhnals. They are her food. There is a better word 

than food. You may all give it if yoi^ can Prey. That 

is right. (If they do not know it tell it.) Would you 

call a shpep's food its prey? No sir. But a cat's food 

is called its .jorey. And you say that her prey consists 

of all kinds of small animals. These animals are very 

quick and the least noise would..' — frighten them away. 
And such animals as mice generally come out of their 
nesta in the night or in a dark cellar or closet. What do 
you think the cat will require first of all, if she has to catch 

her prey in the dark? Hattie? She icill require good. 

eyes. Very well answered. She must have good sharp 

eyes, so as to be able to see even where it is dark. 

Willie, repeat that. (He repeats.) Now all together 

again. All animals are found to be exactly adapted \o 

their habits. The cat, having to catch her prey in 

the dark must be adapted to that, and must therefore 

have good eyesight. Must she have anything else that 

you can think of? Jennie? She must be able to run. 

Well, I do not know whether that will be very necessary 
or not. Listen to me. Would a sheep s feet do for a cat 

even if she could run fast? No sir. I think not. She 

must; have very so/t feet, so that when she walks 

(accompany these ellipses by gestures,) she may make no 

noise. For if she made as much noise as a sheep she 

would .frighten the birds or m.ice. We have now found 

two things that she must have. Fred? Sharp eyes. 



6 . [Lesson II. 

Next? Soft feet. Who will state this ? WiUard ? 

The cat must have sharp eyes and soft feet. Good. 

Now we will try again. She creeps up very softly as 

near as she can get to a bird or a mouse, and then 

she crouches down and waits till it hops a little nearer, 

and while it is not looking she makes a great. , . .spring or 

lenp, and jumps right upon it. But if she had sheep's 

feet, what then ? 8he could not catch the mouse. Another 

.word for catch. She could not seize the mouse. In 

order to enable her to seize it, she must have sharp 

claws upon her .feet. But if you look at a cat's foot 

you see no claws. How is this ? A sword is kept ^in a 

case or sheath. And if a cat's claws are to be 

kept sharp they must also be put into cases. Are 

they ? Yes sir. And if we just pull one of her whisk- 
ers, we see all her claws displayed at once. Then her 

claws are kept sharp by means of sheaths or cases 

between the cushions of her feet. These cushions are 

under her .feet so that she may make no ?ioise when 

she walks near a mouse. 

In the next place, after she has caught her prey she 

must have proper teeth so as to be able to tear it. 

Teeth like a sheep's would not do for the cat. Her 

teeth must be very sharp. 

Now all answer. In order that the cat may be 

adajHed to her habits or way of living she must be 

provided with, 1st, good eyes ; 2d, soft feet; 3d, 

sharp claws to hold or seize her prey ; 4th, to keep her 

claws sharp her feet must have cases or sheaths; 

5th, she must have good sharp teeth in order to 

tear her food. 



Lesson III.] 



OEAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. III. 



The Form of the Earth — Proof by Circumnavigation. 



We are to speak to-day of the Form or Shape of the 
Earth. How many know its shape ? I see several hands 

up. Willie? Jkound. Round like a cent? No sir, 

round like a hall. Round like a stove pipe? No sir, 

round like a ball. A ball is also called a globe. What 

word will mean "like a globe?" George? Globular. 

Right. I will write this word on the blackboard. All 

answer Globular. This word means lihe a globe. 

There is another word which means like a sphere. vVhat 

is it?. spherical. The earth then is round like a 

ball, or globular or spherical. Now do you believe 

this ? If you go outside and look, can you see that it is 

round ? No sir, it is flat. This boy thinks the earth is 

flat. Does any one else think so. No one. Then you think 

it is globular. Why? Have you any reason ? What 

good is there in telling me it is round or globular, it you 
cannot prove it. This boy who said flat answered as he 
naturally believed it is. And for thousands of years people 
lived and died without knowing any better than this. A 

long time ago it was thought to be as it looks, that is 

flat. And boys and girls often asked their parents how 



8 [Lesson III. 

far they could go before arriving at "the end of the 

earth." They felt curious to know if there was any place, 
away off, where you could "jum)) off," — a regular "jump- 
ing off place." And then some very inquisitive boy like 
Sam, here, would ask what it rested on, or what it was built 
upon. But their parents could not tell anything about 
these things. Well, Sam, I see your hand up......? lFAa< 

does the earth rest on f We will see presently. Don't be 
too much in a hurry. Some wise philosophers taught 
people that the earth was built on four great pillars. Others 
that it was carried on the back or shoulders of a god whose 

name they called Atlas. All repeat this name Atlas. 

Then others said the land was like a great raft, and floated 
upon the water. 

Well, Charlie, what is it? 'What did they think the 

pillars rested on, or tlie god, Atlas, or the water ? (If such 
a question is not asked, you ask it.) Oh ! that was the 

great question which they could never ansiuer. We 

have just said that the earth was not flat at all but 

round like a hall, or globular, or spherical. I heard 

some girl say sperical; all answer it correctly spherical. 

Now I am going to tell you how we know this. (Use the 
map of Hemispheres here.) 

In order to go to India, the people of Europe had to 

sail round the continent of Africa, or round the Cape 

of Good Hope, and then across the Indian Ocean. But 

about four hundred years ago, all repeat, about four 

hundnedyears ago, a man named Columbus who lived in a 
city of Europe called Genoa, thought that he could get to 
India in another way in a ship. This man's name was...... 

Columbus' he lived in Genoa about four hundred 

years ago. What did I say about him Lizzie? Se 

thought he could get to India in another way in a ship. 
Yes, Columbus believed that the earth was round like a 

ball or globular or spherical. Very few others 

believed this. No one in Genoa believed it. 

But Columbus said to himself, " now if the earth is actu- 
ally globular, if we sail round the other way, that would 

be West, we will get to India just as well. And I think 

it is a shorter way than going round the Cape of Good 



Lesson III.] 9 

Hopey What was it that Columbus thought, Fannie ? 

(She repeats.) So he went to his King and asked him to 

tit out a good ship a.nd let him go and try to find 

another way to India. Do you think the King did so ? 

Ne, he only laughed at Columbus, and thought he waa 
mad. He said, " Plow ever could you get round the other 
way? Why your ship would fall off." We will see in 
another lesson why it is that a ship does not fall off in 

going round the world. 

But Columbus had to go away from his own country. 

from Italy. He went to this country Spain. There 

the King and Queen, Ferdinand and Isabella, gave him 
several ships to go with, and fitted him out for the voyage. 

What a glad day that was for Columbus ! He thanked 

the Kin'j and Queen and his ship sailed. They went 

away many hundreds of miles to the West. Some- 
times the men got atraid that they would get to the end of 
the world and fall over ! For, some of them believed the 

earth was .flat. At one time they threatened to throw 

■Columbus overboard and go back to Spain. But he 

cheered them and they sailed on, and at last one day, a 
man up on one of the masts, called out that he could see 

the land ! They had, before this, seen branches of trees 

and drifting wood, so that they knew they were near 

land. Then Columbus was sure he was coming near to 

India, and he felt very glad to think what a great 

discovery this would be. 

But as they came near the shore, they saw that the 
people were not like those who lived in India. They had 
come to a very strange place that no European had ever 
seen before. Who can tell me what country it was ? 

George? America. Correct. Afterwards men sailed 

across from Europe westward, all the w^ay to India, by 

going round South America. And now we can travel 

all round the world in about two months. Since we can 

start and keep on in the same direction and at last 

arrive where we started, the earth must be round. 

But if it was like the stove-pipe we could still sail round 

2 



10 [Lesson III. 

it. How are we to know that it is round like a ball ? We 
will prove this in another lesson. 

Now all answer rapidly. Long ago the earth was sup- 
posed to be .fiat. But we now know that it is round 

like a ball, or ghhular, or spherical. The first 

man who acted on this supposition was Columbus, who 

was born in Genoa, about .four hundred years ago. 

He believed it to be globular, and attempted to go to 

India by sailing to the West instead of round 

Cafe of Good Hope. But did he reach India? No sir. 

Instead of that he discovered America, which is between 

Uiirope Siudi this continent Asia (pointing to Asia.) 

Since the time of Columbus, m.en have sailed completely 

round the world, thus proving it to be round. 



Lesson IV. j 11 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. IV. 



Physiology — Organs and Functions. 



I see one or two boys not sitting in an upright 

position. Can they attend properly? No sir. Then 

all sit upright. 

Our bodies consist of many different .parts, and these 

different parts have all different things to do. The hands 
have not the same work to do a,?,.... the feet, (pointing down- 
wards to the feet; use appropriate gestures wherever they 
will assist,) and the teet do not have the same kind of 

work as the e^/es. But every part of the body has 

something to do. And unless it is diseased, every part 

does its own xvorh. Now I want to see whether any of 

you can tell me a name for a part of the body which does 

any paiticular work. What does the eye do? It sees. 

Then you could call the eye an ? There is a particular 

word used for this, which I will give you. Kaise hands all 
w^ho will try and remember it. Well, hands down. It is 

ORGAN. Let me hear all repeat this word organ. 

Again organ. 

The eye or ear then could be called an organ. The 

eye is the organ of sight and the ear is the organ of 

hearing. Raise hands all who will repeat this. (If 

there is one who has the ability to do so and cannot, 



12 [Lesson IV. 

through inattention, make him stand and write it on his 
slate, while some smaller boy or girl dictates it to him.) 

Ella, you may state it The eye is the organ of sight and 

the ear is the organ of hearing. Fred, let us hear that from 

you also. (He repeats.) And the nose is the organ 

of smell. Now all who can give me another organ of the 

body may raise hands. Annie ? The feet are the organs 

of walhrig. Only of walking? and of running. Any- 
thing else ? of dancing. Yes, but we will include those 

all under one name, motion, or a better word is locomo- 
tion. I will write it on the blackboard. Now all answer 

this word locomotion. The feet are the organs of 

locomotion. Harry, repeat it. (He repeats.) 

I will now tell you that that which an organ does is 
called its function. All pronounce this w^rd together 

.functio7i. We say that seeing is the function of the 

eye and that hearing Is the function of the ear. 

The organ is that which performs the work. Now 

who can give me other organs of the body? Hands up. 

What are the organs of speech ? Thomas ? The organs 

of speech are the lips, teeth, tongue and palate. And their 

function is speech. Mary, you may now give the first 

organ we named and its function The eye is the organ 

of sight and sight is its function. Willie, the next The 

ear is the organ of hearing and hearing is its function. 

Jane, the next The nose is the organ of smell and 

smelling is its function. (Always require the whole state- 
ment in full.) Frank, you give the next The feet are 

the organs of locomotion, and their function is locomotion. 

This word simply means moving from place to .place. 

Fannie, the last one The organs of speech are the lips, 

teeth, tongue and palate and speecJi is their function. Are 

there any others that you can think of? Dan? The 

lungs are the organs of breathing. Eaise hands all who 
can give me another word for " breathing." The word is 
respiration, Ali answer together respiration; respi- 
ration means breathing. Dan, will you repest your 

example of an organ now, using this word? The lungs 

are the organs of respiratioyi. Now for others. Emma ? 
The skin is the organ of touch. Very well. And 



Lesson IV.] l3 

touch or — .feeling is its .function. Any others? Well, 

what is the organ of digestion ? the organ into which the 

food is received? The stomach. Don't say stomick 

say stomach; all give it again stomach. Alice you 

may make the statement then 2^he stomach is the organ 

of digestion and digestion is its function. What are the 

teeth for besides speaking? Chewing. Yes, but does 

any one know oi a better word than chewing ? I will 
write one on the blackboard. Mastication. Chewing is 

also called Tnastication. Now, Ch'^rlie, will you state 

about the teeth r* The teeth are the organs of mastication 

or chewing. What does the tongue do beside speak ? 

It tastes. Then the tongue is tJie organ of taste and 

tasting is its function. Can you think of others? Annie ? 

Is the heart an organ? Yes, the heart is an organ. 

It circulates the blood, or sends it through the body. 

You, may now, Annie, give us the statement about the 

heart T/ie heart is t/ie organ winch circulates tiie blood; 

and the circulation of the blood is its .function. You 

make it complete, George. (He makes it in full.) 

Thus the whole body is made up or composed of 

organs, which all perform certain .functions. We will 

rapidly go over what we have said. The eye is the 

organ of sight and its .function is seeing ; the ear is 

the organ of hearing ; the nose is the organ of smell; 

the feet are the organs of locomotion or moving from. 

place to place ; the organs of speech are the lips, teeth, 

tongue and palate. The lungs are the organs of respi' 

ration; the skin is the organ of touch. The stomach 

receives tliefood and is called tJie organ of digestion. 

The teeth are also the organs of c/iewmg, or 

mastication. 



14 [Lesson V. 



OML TRAmiNG LESSON. 

NO. V. 



Natural Science — Heat — Its Effects. 



I need not say before we commence that I hope all will 

sit upright and give their best attention without 

which you cannot learn. Our lesson to-day is upon 

HEAT AND ITS EEFECTS. 

"Who can tell me what heat is ? Is it anything ? Would 
a cannon ball weigh any more if red hot than it would if 
cold? No sir. Then is the heat that it contains any- 
thing ? I see that you are not decided. 

"When we spoke of the atmosphere, we said that some 

things are only known by their effects. The air, for 

instance, we can neither see, nor hear, nor -feel, nor 

taste, nor smell. Then how do we know that there 

is such a thing as air? By Us effects. Now heat also 

produces certain efl'ects by which it is known, besides being 
perceived by the sense of feeling. Kaise hands all who 
can tell me any effect of heat. Bennie, you may tell me 

one It hums us. Well that is the way it acts on the 

sense of feeling. But can any one give me any effect that 
it produces by which we know that a substance contains it ? 
Let us see. Before the blacksmith places the iron rim on 



Lesson V.j 15 

the wheel he heats it. Why ? I will tell you. When 

the iron becom(!S hot it grows much larger. I want a word 

which means " grows larger." George? expands. (If 

no one knows, tell it.) That is correct. And while it is 

expanded he puts it on the xvheel and then cools it. As 

it cools it draws together or ? All listen and I will 

give you the word I want. Contracts. As the iron 

cools it contracts or draws together. Willie, repeat 

that As the iron cools it cordracts or ^ draws together. 

Kate, you may state what we said before that As the 

iro7i becomes hot it expands or grows larger. We now know 

of one effect of heat then. It causes substances to 

expand or grow larger. Emma repeat that Heat 

causes substances to expand. This is tne first effect of 

heat that we have found. 

In the next place, have any of you ever seen the stove 

in a dark room any other color than black ? Yes, sir. 

You have seen it red. When does it get red? When 

it IS very hot. And it is red or appears red because it gives 

out light. What causes a candle or lamp to give forth 

light ? It is the same thing that makes the iron give 

out light and become red. That is the heat. Heat 

causes any substance to give forth light-when it is very 

strongly heated. Now I want a word which means " give 
forth " or " send forth." I will write it on the blackboard. 

Emit. All answer together ernit. If iron is made 

very hot it will emit light, that is send it forth. 

Eddie, you may stand an i repeat that. 7/' w-ow is hot 
enough it will emit or send forth light. (Do not object to 
having the sentence slightly changed if still correct. It 
shows thought and independence.) 

We have now spoken of two effects of heat, 1st, It 

causes substances to expand, and, 2nd, it causes them to 

give out or emit light. Sam will you repeat that The 

first effect of heat is, that it causes substances t-o expand, 
and the second is that it causes them to emit light. 

Now I want you all to think of any other effect of heat. 
Try hard. Does it produce any other effect upon substan- 
ces that you can remember? Hands up. Mary It 

causes ice to melt. Anything else besides ice ? Yes sir, 



16 . [Lesson VI. 

lead. Yes, or any metal, or indeed any solid substance. 

Heat changes solids into ? What would you call water ? 

or melted iron? a liquid. Yes, then all answer, heat 

changes solids into liquids. But if we go further and 

heat the water, what then becomes of it It is changed 

into steam. That is right. And what is it that changes 

the liquid into a gas? The heat. Very well. It changes 

solids into Liquids, and then the liquids into gases. 

Lizzie we want to hear that statement from you It 

changes solids into liquids and liquids into gases. What 
does? Repeat again. (She repeats using " heat " for " it.") 

This is the third effect of heat. 

Now I will give you a definition for heat. Heat is that 

WHICH CAUSES THE SENSATION OF WARMTH. You may all 

repeat Heat is that which causes the sensation of warmth. 

It produces three effects on substances which we have found. 

1st, It causes them, to expand, 2nd,... ..It causes them 

to emit light, and 3d, It changes solids into liquids and 

liquids into gases. We will speak in our next lesson of its 
SOURCES, or whence it is derived. 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. VI. 



Natural Science— Atmospheric Pressure. 



Now all sit upright and attend. Be sure to answer 
promptly. Our lesson to-day is on the atmosphere. 

We are surrounded upon all sides by something which 

we breathe, and which we commonly term the air. It 

has another name which I used just now, the atmosphere. 



Lesson VI. J 17 

This word means the air with all that it contains, such as 
clouds, moisture, &c. 

The shape of the earth is round. (See No. III.) 

Like this cent? JVo sir, like a ball. Round like a ball 

or? I want the word which means like a globe. Hands 

up. James? Globular. Correct. Another ? What 

word means like a sphere ? Annie? Spherical. Now 

it is because the air surrounds our sphere that it is called 

the atmosphere. Raise hands all who can tell me how 

high it extends from the earth's surface ? I will tell 

you. It is forty-five miles high. George, make that 

statement The aiviosphcre is forty-five miles high. Now 

we will repeat. The earth's form is f/lobuhir or 

spherical and it is surrounded by a fluid called the 

atmosphere which is how high ? Forty five miles. Now 

we will go a step farther. Boys sometimes in their play 
"pile on" one another. Who sustains the greatest pres- 
sure ? The boy underneath. And if this room was piled 

full of shot, the lowest layer would sustain the weight of 

all the rest, the next layer not quite so much and 

so on to the top. Just so it is with the air or 

atmosphere. The lowest layer bears the weir/ht of all 

that lies above it. Hence it sustains the greatest 

pressure. Who can tell me the amount of pressure of the 
atmosphere ? i will tell you. If you measure on the 
ground a space of a square inch, and suppose a column of 
air to rest upon it, extending to the top of the air, that is 

how high? Forty five mt/es, this column of air would 

weigh fifteen pounds. Hence we say that the air ])res8es 
with a force of fifteen pounds on every square inch. 
Ella, you may repeat that. (She repeats. Call on others,) 

Then on two square inches it would exert a pressure of 

thirty pounds, and on four square inches sixty pounds. 

Then why do I not feel a great weight upon my hand 
which is more than four square inches ? (In order .to 
explain this take a common glass tumbler and fill it brim- 
full of water, place a piece of paper over the surface of the 
water that will completely cover it. Then take the tum- 
bler in the left hand, place the palm of the right hand 
3 



18 [Lesson VI. 

upon the paper on the surface so as to keep it in position, 
and invert the tumbler. iJold it with the left hand and 
take the right away from the paper. The water will not 
flow out. It will be supported by the upward pressure of 
the air.) Who can tell why this water does not flow out ? 

Willie ? I suppose it is because the air presses up against 

it and Tceeps it in. That is very well explained. It is kept 

in by the pressure of the air. Now who will 

answer my former question ? Why cannot I feel the weight 

upon my hand? Alice? TJie air presses upwards 

underneath it just as forcibly as it presses downwards above 
it. Good, and we stated just now that its pressure amounts 

to how much ? Lizzie ? Fifteen pounds on every square 

inch. Make a complete statement. (She makes it.) 

On account of this pressure the particles at the lower 
part of the atmosphere are pressed tightly together. Now, 
if we were to place a layer of hops over the floor of this 
room, and then put two more layers over them, the lower 

layer would be a very little pressed together. But if 

we filled this room with hops, the lowest layer would 

sustain so much pressure th.a,t they would be very much 

squeezed^ I want a better word. I will tell you one. 

Compressed. All answer compressed. If you take a 

sponge and close your hands upon it, it becomes com- 
pressed. Kepeat that, Charlie. (He repeats, or if he 
cannot through inattention, cause him to write it on his 
slate three or four times after calling on some one who can. 
If he still pretends he cannot, keep him in at recess and 
allow some smaller boy to dictate the words to him slowly, 
then let him have remainder of recess.) And just so with 

the air. The particles down at the earth's surface, on 

account of the weight above them are very much 

compressed, and the air there is said to be very tJiich. 

(This or some other word will probably be given.) I Avant 

a better word .pressed. Better yet. Can you not think 

of a word that means very much compressed ? A dark 

heavy cloud would be said to be ? I will give you the 

word I wanted if all are very attentive. It is dense. All 

repeat it dense. Together again dense. Airatthe 

earth's surface is said to be very dense. Now what is 



Lesson VIL] 19 

the opposite of dense ? Any one ? I will tell you. It is 

RARE. All give it rare. Then away up in the upper 

regions of the atmosphere the air is very rare, 

because, George ? theie is not so much pressure up)onit. 

Charlie, repeat that. (He repeats.) 

Now, all answer rapidly. The form of the earth is 

round like a ball or globular or spherical, (same 

order in whiuh taken at first,) and it is surrounded on all 

sides by a thin fluid called the atmosphere, which 

extends to the height of .forty-five miles dJQo\Q its 

surface. Since the air in the lower parts of the atmos- 
phere has to sustain the weight of all that lies above 

i^, it is greatly compressed. Hence the lower portions 

are very dense, while the upper parts are rare. The 

pressure, which means the force with which it presses, 

is about .fifteen pounds on every square inch. The 

reason we do not perceive this immense .pressure is that 

the particles press uptvards (gesture here) as well as 

downvKirds. We proved this by means of that glass 

of water, which did not spill, although we turned 

it upside down or inverted it. 



OEAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. VIL 



Astronoray — Motions of the Eartli. 



This morning we are to have a lesson on the motions of 

the earth. All must be very attentive, Sind in order to 

do so it is necessary to sit erect. 

Of what shape is the earth? Hound like a ball, or 



20 [Lesson VII. 

globular or spherical. When we spoke of-its form 

(See No. III.) I did not tell you^what it rested on. Does 
it rest on anything r* Have you ever seen a boy with a 

string and a button or a ball tied on the end of it? 

Yes sir. Well, what does the button rest on if the boy 

swings it round his head ? Nothing. And still it does 

not fall to the ground. Well the earth is suspended in 

space, in very much the same wa'i/. But, instead of a 

string or anything of the kind, there is a very strong force 
called ATTRACTI03SI which draws it towards the sun, just as 

the string draws the button toward the boys hand. 

If the string breaks, the button .flies off, but if not, it 

holds the button in its .place. Let us invert this 

sentence. The earth is held in its placehj attrac- 
tion. It is attracted toward the sun. Now, why does 

it not go right into the midst of the sun? I will tell you. 
Like the button it goes round the sun, which tends to keep 

it off, just as the motion of the button keeps it away 

from the hand. (It is best to have a contrivance of 

this kind at the time of giving the lesson to illustrate it.) 

I have just said that the earth goes round the sun. 

Bessie, repeat that 27ie earth goes round the sun. Can 

any one give me a wca'd instead of " goes?" (If not, write 

it.) Well, Sam? Swings. You try, George Revolves. 

That is the word. The earth revolves round the sun. 

Lettie, repeat that. (She repeats.) In the next place, 
how long does it take to revolve once completely round 

the sun? Henry? One year. That is correct. All 

may answer One year. Fred, repeat that The 

earth revolves around the sun in one year. This is called 
the EEVOLUTiONARY MOTION of the earth. I will write 
this on the board. I et me hear these two words from all 

Revolutionary Motioji. The earth's motion round the 

sun is called its revolutionary motion. Fannie, repeat 

that. (She repeats.) 

But are we not altogether mistaken ? It appears to me 
that the sun rather revolves round the earth ! You have 

all seen the sun rise in the east and set in the. west. 

How is this? When on a railroad train, we can imagine 
that the trees, houses, telegraph poles, and fences are all 



Lesson VII.] 21 

moving in the oppoidte direction to that in which we 

are going. But are they? No sir. No, they only 

APPEAR to do so. Their backward motion is only 

apparent. (Write this word if they fail to answer it.) 
And you v/ill afterwards find that it is on account of another 
motion of the earth that the sun appears to revolve round it. 

What is the other motion ? If a wagon moves down the 
street, its wheels move along the ground just as the 
runners of a sleigh would. But they also have another 
motion. What is it ? The^/ move round the axles. Right, 

and as the earth revolves round the suit, it also turns 

or spins round like a wheel. This is its second motion. 

Can any one tell me how often it turns round in this way ? 

George? Onceintiventy -four hours. Very good. (Tell 

it if not known.) And what is this motion called? I 
will show you. The latin word Rota means a wheel, 
and to ROTATE is to turn round like a wheel. There- 
fore this is called its rotatory motion. (Primary accent 
on first syllable. Secondary on the third. Write these 
words and all new words.) Now, a wheel rotates on the 

axle and the earth rotates on its axis. Repeat 

that, Jennie. (She repeats.) Do you think the earth's 

axis is anything 4ike the axle of a wheel? No sir. 

"When a top spins, it does not spin on an axle, but on an 
axis. An axis is only imaginary, that is, it does not really 
exist like an axle. 

Now, you may answer rapidly. The earth has two 

motions. One is called its revolutionary motion., and is 

performed round the sun, and the other is its rota- 

ix/ry motion, which is performed round an imaginary line 

called the axis, which corresponds to the axle of a 

wheel. It performs one revolution in a year., and one 

rotation in twenty-four hours. We will see in another 

lesson, that this last motion causes day and night and other 
curious phenomena. All prepare for our next work. 



22 [Lesson VIII. 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. VIII. 



Physiology — The Five Senses. 



We now expect all to sit upright and keep their senses 
about them. In order to answer promptly, you must give 

your best attention. Again, I want your best 

attention. 

When we are asleep we cannot tell anything that is 
going on around us. Eapturous music may be in the air, 
but we cax\noi......hear it. Beautiful pictures may hang 

all around but we cannot see them. Our bed-clothes 

are around us but we cannot -feel them. Unpleasant 

oders may fill the room but we cannot smell them. 

Neither can we taste anything. Nothing can come into 
the mind from outside. Are there any other ways by 
which we know what is around us besides what we have 

mentioned? No sir. How many ways did we name? 

Five. Now, these five ways by which knowledge 

passes in to the mind are called? They are called the 

FIVE SENSES. All repeat the five senses. 

The first sense that we will speak of is the most impor- 
tant ; it is the sense of seeing. (Use gestures such as 

pointing to the eyes.) You remember our lesson upon 
" organs and ./mictions." The organ is that which 



Lesson VIII.] 23 

acts. The function is that which the organ performs. 

"Well, raise hands all who can tell me the organ of sight. 

Willie? T/ie eye is the organ of sight. Now who can 

tell me the function of this organ ? Annie ? T" he func- 
tion of the eye is seeing, or sight. Is there anything else 
required for sight besides the eyes? Suppose we are shut 

in a dark room, can we see? JVb sir. VJhy 7 There 

is no light. Then we see by means of the light. The 

light enters our cges and produces in the mind a picture 

of the object that we look at. This picture is called a ? 

Anything that is calculated, you would call a calcula- 
tion. And anything that is formed a .formation. Then 

what would anything be called that passes in through one 

of the senses ? a sensation. (Never tell a word if there 

is any way of making the scholar think it out for himself.) 

Correct. The mind receives sensations through the 

senses. Anything that is seen, then, causes a sensation. 

The next sense that we will refer to is hearing. 

(Pointing to the ear.) The organ that performs this office 

is the ear, and the act of hearing is thefunction of 

the ear. Lizzie, will you make a short statement of this 

fact? The ear is the organ and hearing is the function 

that it performs. By what means do we hear? I will tell 
you. It is by the air. At some other time we will have 
a lesson on each sense and then I will explain how we hear. 
But you may all answer for the present that it is by means 
of the air that toe hear. 

We have now mentioned two senses. They are 

Seeing and Hearing. The organ of sight is the eye, 

and we see by means of the light. Harry, repeat. (He 

repeats.) The organ of hearing is the ear, and hearing 

is called its .function. We will now pass on to the next 

sense, feeling. Let me hear this from all .feeling. It 

is sometimes also called touch. The sense of touch or 

.feeling. Raise hands those who know what is the 

organ of touch. James? The skir^.. /es, and its 

function is feeling. If I move backwards against the 

wall, with my hands extended behind me, how do I know 

when I have arrived at the wall ? By feeling it. When 

my hand touches it, a kind of influence is excited there 



24 [Lesson VIII. 

which passes to my mind. This influence you would 

call a ? Since it passes in through the sense of feeling 

it is a sensation. And sensations pass along the ? 

Can no one tell me the name of those organs whose func- 
tion it is to carry sensations to the mind ? If you will all 
remember I will tell you. They are called Nerves. Let 
me hear all answer this word together...... serves. The 

influence excited on my hand passes along the 

nerves to the mind where it produces what we called a 

sensation. Can any one tell me where the sense of 

feeling is most acute? I will tell you. It is most acute in 
the hands, and especially at the finger-ends. The fine 

nerves which are found at the ends of the finger are 

protected by the .finger-nails, because they are so deli- 
cate. The organ of touch then is the sJcin, and its 

function is .feeling. The sensations produced upon the 

skin pass along the nerves to the mind. Give the 

last sentence again, Charlie The sensations pass along 

the nerves to the mind. Good. 

We now come to the sense of smell. Even if we were 
deprived of eyes, ears, and feeling, if there were burning 

brimstone in this room we would soon know it by the 

sense of smell. And we could also tell that sugar was 

sweet and vinegar... .sowr by the remaining sense oL... taste. 

We have said that the mind knows things by the five 

senses. I want a better word than "knows." I will 

give you it. This word is alw^ays used in the sense of 
which we are now speaking. It is perceives'. The mind 

.perceives or knows things by the.... five senses. 

The 1st of these is seeing; in which the eye is the 

organ and sight the function. 2d Hearing in which 

the ear is the organ and heari7ig is tJie function. 

Sd.... Feeling or Touch in which.... the skin is the organ 

and feeling the function. 4th Smell, where the . . .nose 

is the organ. 5th Taste, of which the organ is the 

tongue. Through these five. . .se?ises the mind receives. . .se?i- 
sations. The sensations ixoNel oXong.... the nerves to.... the 
mind which is said to know them or .. .perceive them. That 
is the best word, and the one I wish you always to use. 
You would say that the mind perceives sensations. 



Lesson IX.] 25 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. IX. 



Natural Science— Atmospheric Pressure. 



To attend, you have often told me, means to look 

and listen. Without doing this you could not answer. 

In our former lesson on The Atmosphere, (See No. VII.) 
we stated the fact that the earth was surrounded by a thin 

/f?«VZ called air ; and that this air with all that it 

contains, such as clouds ».\\d...r..smo]ce and raoist- 

ure^ receives the general name of the atmosphere. The 

atmosphere you also told me extends to the height of 

forty -five miles, and exerts on the earth's surface a 

pressure of .fifteen jwunds on every square inch. 

Now do you believe all this ? How do we know that 
there is any such thing as air ? For instance, there is air 

in this. . . .room, but I can neither see it, nor hear it, 

nor can I .feel it or taste it or smell it. How 

then do I know that it is here at all ? In speaking of the 
FIVE SENSES (See No. VIII.) we said that there are!five 

ways in which we become acquainted with the thinqs 

that surround us. Mary, repeat that sentence. (She 
repeats.) And now we find that we cannot tell that there 

is air in this room by either of these five senses. 

Well, Sam, I see your hand up. What is it? / can 

4 



26 [Lesson IX. 

feel the air when I do this, (striking his hand rapidly- 
through the air.) Good ! I see that we have one boy who 
THINKS some. Bat, Sam, when I said we could not feel it, 
I m'eant by rubbing our hands togtther, or the finger and 
thumb simply, just as you would feel flour or sand. We 
will repeat our statement, — at the same time we are much 
obliged to you, Sam, for your suggestion. We cannot tell 

in the ordinary way, that there is air in this room, by 

any of the five senses. The question is then, how are 

we to tell i 

Now, I am going to tell you that SOME things are only 
KNOWN BY THEIR EFFECTS. I have Written this on the 
blackboard. I will now try how many boys or girls there 
are here who notice things that hapi)en round them ; or, 
observe things that come within their observation. Who 
can give me an example to illustrate what I have written 

on the blackboard? George? If a stranger in a city 

passed by a cellar full of ashes and cinders, he luould 
know thai a house had probably been burnt. That is an 
excellent — '..example. Are there any others that any one 

thinks of ? Kate? ^Vhen toe see afield of wheat, we 

know that wheal had been sown there. Very good. We 

would know that the farmer had sown his wheat, 

although we did not perceive it through any of our 

senses. We would, in that case, know it by its effects. 

We see the eflfect and then judge of the cause. This is 

called judging of things, or knowing things by their 

effects. 

We will now apply this to our subject. If we see the 
leaves of a tree all in motion, we then immediately think 

that there must be something that makes them Tnove. 

They have no power in themselves to viove, and must 

therefore be moved by something else. That something 

which moves them is the air. And thus we conclude 

that there is such a thing as air from its effects. I 

want to hear that word from all effects. And if we see 

a door slammed to with a great noise, and no one near 

it, since the door itself cannot move some force must 

have shut it, and we conclude that it was closed by the 

force of the air. 



Lesson X.] • 27 

And when we performed that experiment with the glass 

of water, which we will now repeat, or perform 

again, we found another effect of the air. By" its 

pressure, as we judge, it causes the water to remain in 

the glass. Now I will extend this lesson a little farther. If 
this tumbler were twelve inches high, instead of four, do you 
think that the air would still keep it full of water if inverted 

so? Yes sir. If it were ten feet long, or were a long 

tube closed at one end do you think it could then 

keep it full? I see you cannot tell. It would. And it 
would do so if the tube were thirty-two feet long. What 

did I say then, Willie ? You stated that the pressure of 

the air would keep an inverted tube, thirty-two feet long, full 
of water. But if it were longer than that it would not 
remain full. Or we will state it thus : The pressure of 
the atmosphere would support a column of water 
thirty-two feet high. Charlie, repeat that. (He repeats.) 
You may all write this on your slates, as I have done on the 
blackboard. 



OKAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. X. 



Natural Science— The Three Forms of Matter. 



Now I wish you all to give your attention to what I have 
to say. In order to improve every one must attend. 

There is one word that is used to represent all the dif- 
ferent things that exist in nature. When we use this word 
we may mean clay, iron, water, rock, air, gras§, or any 

other thing that we can tliinh of or .find. Can any 

one tell may what word this is ? All try and think of it. 



28 [Lesson X. 

I want to see some hand raised. Kate, I see your hand 

up; what do you think it is? Things. Well, that 

word would do in most cases. But could you say elegantly 
that a lot of wheat, for example, is a thing? Would you 

say "what a large thing that wheat is!'' for instance? 

JV^o sir. Who can think of a better word? You see that 
I wish you all to think hard before I tell you. Since no 
one knows I will give you the word. All the substances 

that I have named, you may repeat them duy,i):on, 

water, rock, air, and gi'ass may be called Matter. We 

will put this word on the blackboard. I said that they 

could all be called different kinds of matter. This 

word may mean anything that we can find in the world, 

or in any other world. We can call it all matter. 

I am going to try how long every one will remember this 

word. All may repeat it again matter. Willie, what 

about matter? It is a name that is used for everything 

around us. Would you call this ink matter? Yes sir, 

and sand or coal would also be matter. 

Now the earth is composed or made up of many dif- 
ferent kinds of matter. And this matter we find in 

various forms. How many forms does it assume? Per- 
haps this will be a very difficult question for you to answer, 
so we will leave it unanswered till the end of the lesson. 
But I want you all to keep an accurate account as Ave go 
on. All substances like wood, coal, or limestone we call 

? They will not pour like water, because they are 

solid. That is the word. All repeat solid. Eaise 

hands all who can give me other solids. John ? Brass. 

Mary ? Iron. Willie ? Paper. Fred ? Clay. 

George? Ice. Well, that will do. Ice and iron are 

both solids. They are solid forms of m,aiter. Anna, 

repeat that Ice and iron are solid forms of matter. 

I wish you to tell me now how we could change their 
form. Do you remember what we said (See No. V,) when 

speaking of the effects of heat? Yes sir, it changes 

solids to liquids. That is correct. How, then, could we 

change the form of ice or iron? £y heating it. And 

the heat causes it to melt, or become liquid. This 

is the second form of meatier. Some kinds of matter 



Lesson X.] 29 

are solid, like iron or ice, and other kinds are 

liquid, like water. Who can mention other liquids? 

Sam ? Oil Kate ? 3Rlk. Mary ? Medicine. 

Yes, some kinds of medicine are. George? Blood. 

Very good. That will be sufficient now. These substances 

last named are liquids. What is a liquid? Frank? 

Anything' nice water. Anything that- flows like 

vmter is a liquid. When we heat ice it .melts or 

becomes liquid, and forms water. 

Now, we ivish to still further change the form of this 

substance, how shall we do it? By heating it. Yes, 

this would change it into another .form-. It would then 

be steam ox vapor. What do we call this form ? I 

will write it. Gaseous. It is called so because it is like a 

gas; gaseous means like a gas. The air that we 

breathe is a gas. What kind of substance would you 

call air then ? gaseous. And when a liquid is heated, 

its condition is called gaseous. Ice then is a solid, 

water a liqttid&nd steam a gas. Libbie, repeat that 

sentence Ice is a solid, water a liquid and steam, a gas. 

When water becomes vapor it is s^id to ? We will 

take this way of finding out. In map-drawing when you 
form a continent by using a triangle as a basis, you are said 

to triangulate it. Then can you not think of the word 

I want? You have all heard it. When water turns into 

vapor it evaporates. Only one boy answered then. Let 

me hear it from all Evaporate. And the process is 

called evaporation. (If they do not know the word 

triangulate, take any similar word that they do know, to 
illustrate. The word evaporate may be given at once.) 
George repeat that When wate)' becomes vapor it evap- 
orates, and the process is called evaporation. Water is 
caused to evaporate by heat. 

Next, we will revise what we have said. Every substance 

may be included under one name. That is matter. 

Matter exists in different .forms. We have found 

three for7ns. 1st the solid form,. 2d the liquid form, 

and 3d the gaseous form. These are called the three 

forms of matter. How many can now state the forms of 
matter ? Harry ? Matter is found in three forms, solid, 



30 [Lesson X. 

llqid and gaseous. Sarah, you may also state it and use the 
word EXISTS instead of " is found." (She repeats.) 

Now, if we wished to change vapor back into water, 
what would you naturally think we would have to do ? 

When we changed water to vapor we applied heat, 

and if we are to change the vapor back to water, we 

must take away the heat. Give me a word that means 

" take away." Hands up. Well, I will write one. De- 
prive. We would have to deprive the water of heat, to 

change it back again to vapor. Has any boy or girl ever 
held a cold plate or spoon in the spout of a tea kettle where 
the vapor was issuing ? Sam ?..../ have. And when the cold 

plate takes the heat out of the -yapo?- it changes back 

into water and stands upon the plate in small drops. 

Do you know what this process is called? It is called 
CONDENSATION. The vapor is said to condense. All may 

answer. It is said to condense. And when vapor 

condenses it forms wafer. If we now make the water 

very cold, that is, deprive it of its heat it, in turn, 

becomes ?cc, and is said to .freeze. There is a better 

word. Congeal. The water congeals. By cooling, 

then, vapor would condense and form water, and 

water would congeal, and .form ice. (Then rapidly 

review. Invert sentences when you can.) 



Lessen XI.J 31 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XI. 



Cheraistry — Composition of the Air. 



The atmosphere, you have several times told me, (See 

No. VII.) surrounds our ewrth to the height of 

forty-five tniles ; it also exerts a pressure upon the earth's 

surface of .fifteen pounds on every square incJi. In 

the upper regions of the atviosphere the air is quite 

rare, but a't the earth's surface, itisvery dense. 

I am glad you remember these facts so well. Now, what 
kind of properties would you call these ? Its pressure, 
density and rarity, are what kind of qualities or prop- 
erties ? Listen attentively while I tell you. I will write 
the- word on the blackboard. They are mechanical 
properties. We are now to have a lesson on some other 
properties of the air ; or rather, we will speak of its com- 
position, by which I mean the things of which it is 

composed, and also some of their properties. 

You have all told me that that which we breathe is 

air. Now, can any one in the school tell me whether it is 

only one kind of air or several kinds? Kate? Several 

kinds. How do you know that ? What are they ? Now 
it will not do to answer anything without being able to give 
a reason for it. In all your answers try and be accurate. 
When you are uncertain do not be too hasty, i ler ans- 
wer was correct however. There are more kinds of air 



32 [Lesson XI. 

than one in the atmosphere. What are their names? 

Perhaps you have never thought of this before. 

Is a cup of tea only one kind of liquid ? No sir. It 

has at least two liquids mixed, water and TnilJc. Well, 

the air has two principal kinds of gas or air in it. I used 

a new word then. What was it ? Gas. Yes, this also 

means air. The most important kind of gas in the air — 

we will use the word gas now for one single kind of air — is 

called OXYGEN. Let me hear this word from all Oxygen. 

What about oxygen, Charlie? Oxygen is the mosC impor- 
tant gas in the air. It is the oxygen that is used up when 

we breathe the .air into our Imigs. And it is the 

oxygen that causes a fire to hum. The other gasses in 

the air would not support a flame at all by themselves. 
They would not do to breathe. Then why not have the 

air all oxygen ? George? It anight be too strong. Well, 

that is the very reason I wanted. AH may repeat. The 

air would be too strong if it was pure oxygen. I 

hope you never go into saloons or places where liquor is 
sold, but you may have seen people drink strong liquor. 
Do they drink it just as strong as it is when they buy it ? 
...... iVo sir, they put water in it first. They do this so as 

to make it not quite so strong, or to — :.wealcen it. Can 

you not give me a better word than " weaken ? " Look at 
the blackboard while I write one. Dilute. What is it? 

Dilute. They put the water into the liquor to 

dilute it. And the Creator has very wisely diluted 

the gas that we spoke of in the air the oxygen. It 

is <^?t7Mi!e<:^ with another gas called nitrogen. Repeat 

that, Sam? The oxygen is diluted loith another gas 

called nitrogen. Which of these two gasses is the mosti 

important? Hands up. Sarah? The oxygen is the\ 

most important. 

Can any one tell me, now, how much oxygen there is in] 
the air, in proportion to the nitrogen ? How much oxygen! 
would there be in ten bushels of air ? If you will all] 
remember it 1 will tell you. There would be two bush- 
els OF OXYGEN IN TEN OF AIR. Then how many in five 

bushels of air? Peter? There luould be one bushel oj 

oxygen in five bushels of air. And if we should take 



Lesson XI ] 33 

large room full of air and divide it up into five parts, one 

part would be oxygen and the other four parts 

nitrogen to dilute one part of oxygen. Mark, repeat 

that. (He repeats.) But do you think that the oxygen 

would all be by itself, and the nitrogen also by itself ? 

No sir. No, the}' are thorougly mixed together. If I 

were to put one quart of gunpowder and four quarts of 
onion seed into a box and shake them up together, this 

mixture would represent the air. The gunpowder 

would represent the oxygen and the onion seed the 

nitrogen. How many quarts of mixture would I have? 

Five quarts. Hence we say that one-fifth of the air is 

oxygen and four-fifths nitrogen. Who will state 

this ? George ? One-fifth of the air is oxygen and four- 
fifths nitrogen. 

Now review rapidly. The air does not consist of only 

one kind of gas but several Jcinds. It consists 

almost entirely of two Jcinds of gas. They are 1st 

oxygen which is the most important, axidi 2d nitrogen 

with which the oxygen is diluted or weakened. For 

one barrel of oxygen, there are .four barrels of nitrogen. 

Or better, for one part of oxygen there are four parts 

of nitrogen, to make up .five parts of atmospheric air. 

5 



34 [Lesson XII. 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XII. 



Mental Science — Memory, 



Now I want your best attention. We are to have a 
lesson this morning on Memory. We will also speak of 
its improvement. 

What is memory ? You have heard people say " I have 

such a poor memory." What do they mean ? Lizzie ? 

Remembrance. James? Recollection. Well, let us 

see. If a man told you he could remember all about the 
battle of Winchester because he had passed through it, but 
could not remember anything of the other battles of the 
Rebellion, would you say that he had a good memory ? 

No sir. But he would have a good recollection of 

that particular battle. His remembrance of that battle 

might be very good, and yet he would have a poor 

memory. Then there is a difference between remembrance 

or recollection and memory. I would like you to listen 

to me while I tell you what memory is. I am writing the 
definition on the blackboard. You have all tried hard to 
think of it but as you cannot I will give it. Memory is 

THAT FACULTY OF THE MIND BY WHICH WE RECALL 

PAST OCCURRENCES. Annie, repeat that Pa&t occur- 
rences. I thought so. This girl was looking out of the 
window, at something, and so, although the sound entered 
her ears/\i must have gone in atone ear and out 



Lesson XII.] 35 

at the other. (Make gestures with the hands to indicate 
your meaning.) Annie, do you not feel ashamed to see so 
many hands up all around you? You will remain in at 
recess and write that definition five times upon your slate. 
If you cannot do it alone then I will get little Willie, here to 

dictate it to you. Willie, you may give it Memory is 

that faculty of the mind by which we rc-all past occurrences. 

I said that is was a faculty of the mvid. This 

means a power of the mind ; or, more simply a part of 

of the mind. Memory, then, is that faculty or 

power ov .part of the mind by which we recall 

past scenes. (Ask several to repeat this.) 

Memory is a very important faculty of the mind. Think 
what we would be without memory. I might show you 
how to perform an operation in Arithmetic or to analyse a 
sentence, but if you could remember nothing of it next day 

would it be of any use? iVb sir. Memory then is very 

important. And it must be a valuable thing to know 

how 10 preserve or improve it. I will tell you some ways 
to do this. 

The first thing to be attended to is this : We must 

always understand what we wish to remember. 

Charlie, repeat this. (He repeats.) If you do not under- 
stand a question in Arithmetic, can you remember it? 

No sir. You cannot remember it till you tinderstand 

it. We must first understand, Siud then remember. 

Kate, repeat the first statement respecting the cultivation 

of memory We must first understand what we wish to 

remember. Unless we understand a thing it is impossible 
to remember it. 

What else do you consider necessary in cultivating mem- 
ory ? I will tell you another thing. Children often attend 
a concert in which they feel highly interested, and there- 
fore remember all about it. The same children may listen 

to a lecture or discourse, in which they are not at all 

interested a.nd then they do not remember it. George, 

try whether you can state this then We must also be 

interested iti what we wish to remefmher. If a scholar is not 
interested in the lesson — if he would just as willingly play 
with his fingers, or look out of the window, it is impos- 



36 [Lesson XII. 

Bible for him to remember the lesson. The first point 

we noted was that we must understand what we wish 

to remember ; and the second, we must be interested in 

what toe wish to rem,emher. 

The third way is to use maps, charts, diagrams, books, 
PICTURES, EXPERIMENTS, or any other aids that can be 

procured. "What is the third method, Ella? It is the 

use of such aids and illustrations as maps, charts, diagrams, 
hooks, pictures, experiments, dc. When we study geog- 
raphy, for example, we cannot do so well by committing to 
our memory a long list of names, as we could if they were 

accompanied by a map to show their position. The 

map would aid our memory. And so in the study of 

chemistry, in our lesson on Atmospheric Pressure you 
could not have remembered it half so well if we had not 

performed that experiment, to illustrate our subject. 

The experiment, you see, gave great assistance to our 

memory. 

Now there is still one more way to aid the memory. It 
is what we call The Law of Association. When I tell you 
about Mount Vernon, if I also tell you that Washington 
was born there, this will furnish great assistance in trying 

to remember it. If you remember this place Mount 

Vernoti, you will then, by this law of association, asso- 
ciate with it the name of Washington and thus you 

will remember it when you remember Mount Vernon. 

And when you think of Washington you will think of the 

place where he lived. This method of associating one 

fact with another is called the law of association. 

This is the fourth method of aiding the memory. 

Now, we will recapitulate. Memory is that .faculty 

of the mind,hy which we recall past scenes. Itcan 

be cultivated in four ways. 1st By always under- 
standing what we wish to remember. 2d £y feeling 

interested in what we try to remember. 3d By using 

such aids as maps, charts, books, experiments, diagrams, <£c. 
And 4th By the law of association. 



LefisonXm.] 37 



ORAL TRAmiNG LESSON. 

NO. XIII. 



Bt3nnology — Derivation — Words from Traho. 



As every one is in perfect order, we will proceed at 

once with our lesson. To-day we are to have a lesson 

on the derivation of words, or the manner in which they 

are. derived or obtained. I know you will all be 

very much interested in this lesson. 

All observe what I write on the board. (Write on the 
blackboard as follows :) Traho ; Tractum ; io draw. 
This is a word from the Latin language. A great many 

words in the English language are derived from Latin. 

The last two letters of the second word are called the end- 
ing of the word, Do any of you know a better word than 

"ending?" What is the ending of a railroad called? 

The terminus. Yes, and the ending of a word is called its 

TERMINATION. The termination of tractum is uni. Do 

you know what the other part of the word is called ? I 
will tell you. Tract is called the root of the word. 
Willie, I wish you to tell me the two parts of this Latin 

word The root is tract and the termination is um. 

Very good. 

Now the part that I called the root, which is tract, 

and means to draw, is found in a great many English 

words. Raise hands all who can think of any word with 
"tract" in it. Bessie? Attract. That is an excellent 



m [Lesson XIII. 

example. What two letters, Bessie, did you place before 

" tract?" At. Now this part of the word attkact is 

called the PREFIX. "At," again, is called the prefix. 

Pre itself is a prefix. It means " before," and " prefix," is 
80 called because it is "fixed before" another word. In 

attract, then, a^ is the prefix. I will tell you that its 

proper form is ad, not at. But on account of the unpleasant 
sound of the word " adtract " it is preferred to call it — 

attract, thus changing the d to f. The prefix ad, means 

TO ; and tract, you say, means. ...to draiv. Then what will 

attract mean ? To draiv to. That is correct. A magnet 

will ai^rac^ pieces of iron,s\xch. as needles or 

peris, <bc; that is, it will draw them to it. Who will 

now form another word by adding another syllable to 

attract? George? Attraction. That is the word. It 

means the act of attracting or drawing to. Now 

add IVE instead of ion. All may give it Attraction; 

this means having the power of drawing to or 

attracting. There are also others, but we will pass on. 

Can any one give me another word with " tract " in it ? 

That's right, I see every hand up? Kate? Contract. 

Very well. What prefix did she use? Fannie? Con. 

This means together. (Keep these prefixes written on the 
blackboard, under each other, with the meanings opposite.) 

What will contract mean? Sam? To draw together. 

When red-hot iron cools, it contracts. Or if you stretch 

a piece of india-rubber, it will afterwards contract or 

draw together. When two men are drawn together by 

a written agreement, this agreement is called a contract 

because it binds or .draws them together. One of these 

men v/fio contract with the other would be called a 

contractor. This is another word. Any other? Con- 
traction. Yes. We will now pass on and take other words. 

Raise hands for others. Lizzie? Retract. Well, let 

us analyze this word. Re means back, and tract, we have 

said means to draw. Then retract will mean to 

draw hack. Would you call it retracting this chair, if I 
draw it back ? I must state that this word is not used for 

objects such as this chair, but it is used in connection 

with our statements. When a false statement is made it is 



Lesson XIII.] 39 

sometimes contradicted by the person who made it. He is 

said to take his words back or retract them. "We retract 

statements but not objects. 

Now raise hands all who know other words from tractum. 

Jane? Distract. The prefix of this word is dis. 

Dis means apart or asunder. What, then, does distract 

mean? Charlie? To draiv apart. That is correct. 

But here I have a piece of paper in my hands. If I draw 
the paper apart will that be distracting it ? Let me tell 
you that it would not. It is only used in connection with 
the mind. When our minds are, so to speak, drawn apart, 

by care, they are said to be distracted. Trouble and 

annoyance would distract the mind. Loud talking or 

whispering in the school-room would draw the attention 

apart or distract it. Anything that interrupts us 

distracts the attention. 

I now wish to hear other words. Hands up. George ? 

Subtract. Now we have a good word. The prefix 

Sub means under. Consequently the word subtract 

will mean to draw under. Why do you think it is to 

draw under any more than to draw over, George ? 

Because the number that is subtracted is written ur^der the 
other. Yes, I suppose that is the reason. 

Fred? What is your word? Protract. The prefix 

of this word is pro. It means forward. Then to 

protract is to draw forward. When our lesson has 

been drawn .forward we say it has been .protracted. 

Protracted meetings, are meetings that are drawn for- 
ward, or, a great many of which are held in a short 

time. By a protracted discourse we would mean a very 
long one. 

Allie? Your word? Detract. This is another good 

word. De, which is the .prefix, means down. And 

detract will mean to draw down. Could I say " I will 

detract this ceiling ?" Let me tell you that this word is 
applied to character. When one person slanders another 

or draws down his character, h.e is said to detract 

his character. 

The root of these words is tract. The first word was 

Attract which means to draw to; 2d Contract, 



40 [Lesson XIV. 

to draw together; 3d Retract, to draw hack; 

4th Distract, to draw apart; 5tli Subtract, to 

draw under ; 6 th Protract, to draio forwai d / 

and 8th Detract, to draw down. We speak of 

retracting a statement; of distracting our "minds ; 

of detracting any one's character. That will end 

this lesson. 



OML TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XIV. 



Natural Science — Sources of Heat. 



I am always glad in commencing a lesson to see every 

one in such good positioti sitting upright and 

attending. 

Raise hands all who can remember how many effects of 
heat we mentioned in our former lesson upon that subject? 

(See No. V.) George? Three. Three what? Three 

effects of heat. What about them ? Learn to make a full 

statement about everything We 7netiiioned three effects 

of heat in our former lesson. Who knows the first one ? 
Bessie?.; — Seat causes substances to expqnd or become 
large)'. Good ! our lesson is commencing in excellent style. 

The second? Willie? Seat causes substances when 

very hot to emit, or send forth light. That is correct also. 

The third ? Mary? Seat changes or converts solids 

into liquids and liquids into gases. Very good. We are 
now to proceed to the consideration of the sources of Heat. 

What is a source? The place where a river rises is 
called its source. When I hear whispering in the 



Lesson XIV.] 41 

schoolroom, it comes from some source, and I very nat- 

tirally look around io... find out the source of theivhispering. 
Instead of "find out" there is a better expression — one 

word — what is it? discover. Well, can any of you 

discover any source of heat, that is, any place where we 
obtain heat, or any means ofobtaining.it? Kaise hands. 

Emily? Fire. What about fire? Fire is one source 

of heat. Any other? Annie? The sun is a source of 

heat. And since most of our heat is received from the 

sun we will mention it as the first source of heat. 

Before going any further, give me other words for received. 

I said that most of the earth's heat is received from, the 

sun. Any other word? Sam? Obtained. Yes, I 

believe we have already used that word. Others ? Hands 

up. Kate? Procured. That is also a good word. 

Frank? Got. Yes, the simple word got is a good 

one. Anymore? George? Derived. That I think is 

the best word. The source from which most of our 

heat is derived is the sun. Now we will have 

Emily's answer .fire. Fire we will consider the 

second source of heat. Genie, you may repeat these two 

sources ^fhe sun is the first and fire the second source 

of heat. 

Now I will ask for another source. But first I will 
give you a better word than fire. Combustion. All ans- 
wer this covibustion. This word means .fire. Well, 

hands up for another source. Let us investigate. If you 

rub a metal button on a smooth board it becomes hot. 

Whence does the heat come ? It is caused by the 

rubbing. (Imitate the motion. Always use gestures where 
they will assist.) Can you not think of another word that 
is better than rubbing ? Here is one. Friction. All 

repeat .friction or rubb ing is the thi7'd source of 

heat. Who will now mention all three ? Alexander ? 

The first source of heat is the sun, the second is combtcstion 
or fire, and the third is friction or rubbing. 

Now we want other sources. When a gun is discharged 
where is the heat obtained that sets fire to the cap ? It is 



42 [Lesson XIV. 

caused by the striking of the hammer. A blacksmith can 
hammer a piece of iron until it becomes hot enough to 
kindle his fire ! This may appear strange but it is so. 
Then we have a fourth source of heat. It is strik- 
ing. There is a better word. The caps sold for guns are 
not called " striking caps." Hands uj) those who know 

what they are called. Archie? Percussion caps. That 

is the word. Percussion means striking. The fourth 

source of heat is .percussion. 1st we had the 

Sun ; 2d Co7nbustion ; 3d Friction ; 4th Per- 
cussion. We will keep them written upon the blackboard 
so as to have them all in the same order. I suppose we 
have now had nearly always the sources of heat. Are there 
any others ? All think. Have any of you ever seen water 
— cold water — poured upon quick-lime? I see many hands 
raised. Well, hands down. The lime and water become 

very hot, hot enough to scald ?<s. Whence does 

the heat come ? I would have thought that pouring cold 

water on it would surely cool it instead of heating it. 

The heat here is caused by the action of the lime and 
water. This kind of action is called Chemical Action. 
It is this kind of action that causes the heat when wood 
burns. We will see this better in another lesson. I want 

to hear these two words from all Chemical Action. (A 

very fine experiment in illustration of this is to place sul- 
phuric acid and cold water together in equal parts. The 
chemical action going on evolves much heat, although no 
action of any kind can be seen.) I now wish you, Lucy, 

to rise and give these five sources The first source of 

heat is the sun, the second is combustion, the third is friction, 
the fourth is percussion, and the fifth chemical action. 

I wonder if we can find any other. Here is a boy who 
has his hand up. I can tell by his eyes that he has a good 

idea. Well, Fred? IJcnow amxin who had a hay-stach 

turned hy the lightning. Good. Another name for light- 
ning is electricity. I will write it. All answer this 

word Electricity. This is another source of heat. 

What is this last source, Charlie ? I thought he could not 
tell. Some boys allow what they hear to pass in at one ear 
and out at the other. You might as well pour water 



Lesson XV.] aq 

on a duck's back and try to wef it. You tell him Fred 

electricity/. Now Charlie ? electricity/. 

We have now mentioned six sources. This will be 

sufficient for the present. If any one thinks of others you 
may bring them to me at any time. The source is the place 

where anything is obtained or derived. The first 

source of heat is the stm. 2d Combustion or 

fi^'^- 3d Friction or rubbing. 4th Percussion 

^^: strihyig. 5th Chemical action. 6th :Elec- 

tricity or lightning. 

I hope all will endeavor to remember this lesson. Our 
next upon heat will be to tell how it passes from one body 
to another, or is teansmitted. 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XV. 



Physiology — The Nerves. 



Now all sit upright " in position." You remember our 

rule about giving good attention. To attend means to 

look an d listen. 

We become acquainted with all that surrounds us by 

means of the five senses. (See lesson on this subject, 

No. VIII.,) which are 1st Seeing; 2d Hearing; 3d 

'"•"Feeling; 4th Tasting; and 5th Smelling. Any- 
thing that the mind receives through any of the senses is 
called a sefisaiion. 

Now, this lesson is upon those organs of the body along 
which these sensations travel in order to reach the mind. 



44 [Lesson XV. 

Can any one tell me what organs they are? James? 

The nerves. (If neither he nor any other can tell you, 
this fact must be stated.) That is correct, and I wish to 
tell you that the nerves, together with the brain, form what 
is called the nervous system. What organs form the 

nervous .system? Nellie? The brain and the nerves 

form the nervous system. Very well. 

Can any one tell me how many kinds of nerves there 
are ? Let us investigate it a little. When I wish to raise 
my arm how do I do it ? I will tell you. My mind issues 
an order which passes along a nerve to the muscle, causing 

it to contract or draw together. (See No. XIIL) When 

the muscle contracts it draws up my arm. (To illustrate 
this, request them to grasp the muscle surrounding the 
upper arm tightly, midway between the elbow and shoul- 
der, having the arm extended. Then to slowly raise the 
lower arm, when the swelling of the muscle, caused by its 
contraction, is plainly felt. Explain that the contracting 
of the muscle is the cause of the arm's being raised.) The 

message, or as I before called it, the order after being 

sent forth by my mind, traveled along a 7ierve and 

thus reached the Tniisde causing it to contract. 

You may repeat that Jane. (If she cannot, carefully state 
it again as before, or invert the sentence thus :) The mes- 
sage or order that was sent from my mind to the 

muscle, traveled along a nerve. Now repeat, Jane 

' The message or order thai passed from your mind to the 
muscle traveled along a nerve. Raise hands all who can 
repeat it. (Do not leave it till all can.) This is one kind 

of nerve. On this class of nerves commands or orders 

or messages pass from the tnind t o the m^uscles. 

These nerves are called efferent nerves. All repeat 

Efferent nerves. What are efferent nerves, Annie? 

Efferent nerves are those along which the commands of 

the mind pass outwards to the body. Yes. This word is 
derived from two Latin words, Fero, to carry, and Ex, out. 
But the X of Ex, for the sake of the better sound is changed 
to f ; and so instead of Ex-ferent we have it thus : Ef- 
ferent. Those nerves which " carry out " messages from 
the mitid are called efferent nerves. 



Lesson XV,] 45 

We have now to speak of another class of nerves. You 
told me that anything passing to the mind through one of 

the five senses is called a sensation. And I told 

you that these sensations passed over the nerves in 

going to the mmd. Now the nerves along which these 

sensations pass, are not the same nerves that we have 
spoken of. They form another class. And because they 

carry sensations in to, the mind they are described 

by a word which is derived from Fero, to carry, and Ad, 
to. The d of Ad is changed also to f. The word is Af- 
ferent. (Write all such words on the blackboard.) 

Aflerent means carrying to; and the nerves which 

carry in sensations to the ■mmc? are called affe)-- 

ent nerves. George, repeat that Tlie nerves xohich carry 

in sensations to the mind are called afferent nerves. (Call 
on several to repeat this, and do not leave it till all can do 
so, and even invert and transpose the sentence.) 

Now all answer promptly. The nervous system consists 

of two .parts, the brain and the nerves. The nerves 

again are divided into two classes which are called 

efferent and afferent. The efferent nerves are those that 

carry commands out from the mind ; and the 

afferent are those that carry sensations in to the mhid. 

The channels through which these sensations reach the 

mind are called the five senses, and the name sensation 

is used because it passes in through one of the senses. 

(During the lesson call frequently for full statements of 
facts, or deductions from facts, from individual scholars, so 
as to secure assurance that the matters before them are 
comprehended, and to give them power over language. 
Occasionally allow them to write "a composition" upon 
the subject of the lesson. 



46 [Lesson XVI. 



OML TMINING LESSON. 

NO. XVI. 



Mathematical Geography — Lines Upon the Earth's 
Surface. 



Every eye must be directed towards me, and all must eit 
upright and answer .promptly. 

The earth's form is round like a ball (See No. III.) 

or globular or spherical. And raise hands all who 

can tell me how many motions we described in our lesson 

on the motions of the earth. George? The earth has 

ttvo motions; its rotatory motion and its revolutionary motion. 
Very well expressed. Its revolutionary motion is per- 
formed round the sun; and its rotatory motion 

around its own axis. What is the earth's axis? Annie? 

......It is the imaginary line around which it turns. Yes, 

and this imaginary line corresponds to the axle of a 

wheel. Axle and axis are similar words. They have 

almost the same meaning. 

Now in this globe (an apple, wooden ball, or any round 
or spherical object will do as well) we have a representation 

of the earth. I will cause it to revolve. It revolves 

on its axis. Has the earth a material axis like this 

globe has? No sir. Its axis is imaginary. The ends of 

this axis are called the poles. This one is the North 

Fole, and this the ISouth Fole. Now if, as I revolve 



1 esson XVI.] 47 

this globe on its axis, I mark a line exactly at an equal 
DISTANCE FROM EACH PoLE, this line receives a particular 

name. What is it? Hands up. Fred? It is called 

the Equator. (If not known, tell it.) That is correct. 

And its name indicates that it is at an equal distance 

from each 'pole. Bessie, repeat that The name " eqxia- 

tor " indicates that it is drawn at an equal distance from 
each pole. Very well. 

Now, can any one tell me whether the North Pole, the 
South Pole, or the Equator is situated exactly facing the 
sun ? And if any of them is, which it is ? I see no one 
knows. Neither of them is exactly opposite the sun, but 
the equator is nearest to it. It occupies this position. All 
look at me. If you suppose that boy's head to be the sun, 
and draw a line directly to this globe, will the axis of the 
globe be at right angles to this line ? Look how I hold it 

No sir. Can you tell me how far the earth's axis is 

from being at right angles? I will endeavor to explain 
how far. Every circle is supposed to be divided in 3G0 
equal parts called degrees. How many degrees in half a 
circle of any size? l^Q degrees. (Explain on the black- 
board &c., that it holds good for circles of any size. In 
large circles the degrees will be larger, but still there are 
only 360 degrees in the circle, however large.) In a quar- 
ter of a circle ? 90 degrees. Willie, repeat that state- 
ment in full In a quarter of a circle there are 90 deg. 

In an eighth of a circle there would be half of 90 

degrees, which is 45 degrees. That would be about like 

this : (Draw a line horizontally, another at right angles to 
it, and a third between the two at 45 degrees inclination to 
each of them.) This last line I drew is inclined. All 

repeat this word Inclined. It is said to be inclined 

about 45 degrees from the perpendicular line. Again, the 
last line I drew is inclined 45 degrees from the perpen- 
dicular line. Ella, you may repeat that. (She repeats.) 
Now, the earth's axis is inclined only a little more than 
half as much as that from a perpendicular line. It is 

inclined 23^ degrees. What is, Charlie? The earth's 

axis. What about the earth's axis ? I want to see if you 
really were attending? The eartKs axis is inclined 23 J 



48 [Lesson XVI. 

degrees from a line drawn perpendicular to the line extend- 
ing from the Sim to the earth. (Now get some one to repeat 
and use the words at " right angles " instead of " perpen- 
dicular." Cause all to be able to repeat it before leaving it.) 

Then let us revise a little. The imaginary line on which 

the earth roto^es is called its accis. The ends of this 

axis are the poles. If we suppose a line drawn from 

the sun to the earth, the axis of the earth is not at right 

angles or .perpendicular to this liiie, but is inclined 

from the perpendicular about. 23^ degrees. What is a 

degree? It is one of the equal .parts, of which there 

are 3Q0 in a circle. Lettie, repeat that. (She repeats.) 

If the north pole were inclined just one degree from the 
perpendicular towards the sun, would the people at the 

equator have the sun directly overhead ? iVb sir. It 

would be just one degree nortti of the point that was 

overhead. Well, observe closely. (Carry the globe round 
to the opposite side of the sun, keeping its axis pointing in 
the same absolute direction, so that when it has passed half 
way round, the distance the earth travels in six months, 
the opposite or south pole will now be inclined one degree 
toward the sun from the perpendicular, and the north pole 
one degree away from the sun.) The earth has now revolved 

six months and has gone half way round the sun. 

Remark that the axis always remains parallel to itself, that 

is, it always points in the same general direction. Now, 

would the people at the equator have the sun one degree 

NORTH of the point overhead? No sir. South. Well, 

since the earth's axis is 23 ^ degrees inclined, the inhabi- 
tants living at the equator, when the earth is at the first 
point that I represented just now (carry it back where you 
started) would have the sun how far from the point over- 
head ? 22t\ degrees. Which way ? North. And the 

sun would be shining overhead to people living 23 J degrees 

north of the equator. If we now draw a line through 

this point as the earth rotates, this line represents the 
Tropic of Cancer. And when the earth has revolved 

half way round again, the sun. would be overhead to 

people who live 23j degrees south of the equator ; and 

a line drawn through this point round the earth, parallel 



Lesson XVIL] 49 

to the equator is the Tropic of Capricorn. Eaise hands 
all who will tell me the name of the northern tropic. 

Fannie? The northen-n tropic is the tro2nc of Cancer. 

The Southern one, David.'' The southern tropic is the 

tropic of Capricorn. (Here commence and rapidly revise 
or recapitulate the whole lesson.) 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XVII. 



Natural Science — Climate — Its Causes. 



Now all must be very attentive while we revise our 

lesson on the elements of climate. 

The elements of anything are those things that com- 
pose it, or make it up. There are how many elements 

of climate? Three. (See No. I.) These are 1st 

temperature, or the heat ar cold; 2d moisture, or 

the state of being wet or chy ; and 3d .prevailing 

wields. Those climates that are too cold in xointer or 

too hot in summer, are called extreme, vihiiQ those 

that are neither too cold nor too hot, are called 

temperate. 

We are to speak to-day of the causes of climate. If 
you wished to know whether a country had a wet or dry, 

cold or hot, or a stormy climate, what would you 

ask about it in order to decide this ? All try and think of 
this. How can we tell what variety of climate any country 
has ? What must we know before we can tell ? Let us 
investigate it a little. 



50 [Lesson XVII. 

When we conducted our lesson on the lines on the earth's 
surface (See No. XVI.) we stated that the earth in its 
motion like a wheel, revolves around an imaginary line 

called its axis. The ends of this axis are called 

poles, the North and South poles. There is a line then 

which, because it is drawn at an equal distance from 
EACH POLE, is caWed....^. the equator. I wish to tell you 
now that the countries where the sun shines directly over 

head or .perpendicularly, are those that are near 

this line the equator. (Use a globe if you have one, 

or at least a map here.) Here, 232 degrees north of the 

equator \& another line called the tropic of Cancer, 

and 232 degrees south of the equator is the tropic of 

Capricorn. How many degrees are there between these 
two tropics? 47 degrees. And countries lying any- 
where ^between the tropics are called ? They are 

called INTEKTROPICAL. What are intertropical countries? 

Hands up. Fred? Intertropical countries are those 

lying between tropics. And since these countries have 

the sun almost directly overhead, they will have a 

hot climate. And if we go nearer to the poles it becomes 

colder till at last at the polar regions we would find 

only ice and snow all the year round. Now listen while 

I state the first cause of climate in a few words. Distance 
NORTH OR SOUTH OF THE EQUATOR. Emily, give the first 

cause of climate again The first cause of climate is 

distance north or south of the equator. I will call for this 
again. 

Does any other cause affect climate ? All think. You 

said it would be hot near the equator. Well, I can 

tell you of places between the tropics where there is abun- 
dance of snow Yes sir, on the tops of high Tnountair^s. 

So that it will make some diflference whether a country is 

high or low ; that is, whether it is high above the level 

of the sea. Now, who will state this second cause of cli- 
mate ? George ? Height above the level of the sea. Can 

any one give me a word that will be better than height ? 
Let me give you one. I will write it on our blackboard. 
Elevation. Will you repeat your definition, George, and 
use this word? TJie second cause of climate is elevation 



Lesson XVII.] 51 

above- f he sea level. Those countries that are high and 
mountainous will have cold climates ; well we will say- 
colder climates than those that are at the sea level. 

All answer promptly. 232 degrees on either side of 

theequator are the two tropics, including those countries 

that are called intertropical. These countries have 

hot climates. We said that the first cause of clim.ate is 

distance north or south of the equator ; and the second 

is elevation above the sea level. Those countries border- 
ing on the equator have hot climates while those 

toward the poles will have colder climates. And 

elevated or high countries will be colder than those 

at the level of the sea. 

Well, has any one thought of any other cause ? Will 
Minnesota have a similar climate to an island such as 
Great Britain ? You see by the map that Britain is much 

farther north than Ifinncsota, but I will tell you that 

it is never as cold as zero in winter, or very warm in sum- 
mer. Indeed, their rivers are very rarely frozen over 
firmly enough to skate on. Now, why should there be 

such a difference ? George ? The water of the sea keeps 

an island warm in winter and cool in summer. Very well 

answered. And in the centre of a continent (point to 

the continent of North America) the wind in winter blows 

over immense fields of snow or ice, and keeps the air 

co/f?— intensely cold, and in summer the wind 

comes across the heated land, and of course, must be very 

ivarm. Indeed countries in the centre of a cordi- 

nent have what kind of a climate? What kind of climates 
are those that are too hot in summer and too cold in winter? 

Extreme climates. What about extreme climates? 

Mary? Countries in the middle of a continent have 

extreme climates. Who can think of a better word than 

middle or centre? George? Interior. Well, George, 

state it and use this word. (He states it again.) And 

islands will have temperate climates. How then will 

we state the third cause ? Let me do it. The nearness 
OF LARGE TRACTS OF LAND OR WATER. But there is a much 

better word than nearness. What is it? Archie? 

closeness. Well, any other ? I will write it. Proximity. 



52 [Lesson XVIII. 

The third cause of climate is the proximity of large 

tracts uf land or water. Libbie, repeat that. (She repeats.) 
There are a few other causes, but we have the three 

principal ones. 1st Distance north or south of the 

equator. 2d Elevation above the level of the sea. 3d 

ProxiTnity of large tracts of land or water. 



ORAL TRAmiNG LESSON. 

NO. XVIII. 



Anatomy — Osseous System. 



Diligent scholars are always found to be among those 
'who advance in study. And the very first thing that 
indicates diligence is giving good attentiooi. 

Our bodies are made up of a great number of different 

.parts; another word organs, which perform a 

great many functions. And in order to give support and 

firmness to these different organs the body is built, so 

to speak, on a strong framework. This framework of our 

bodies consists of the bones. We will have a lesson 

to-day on the bones of the body. 

First then is a strong column in the back which 

is made of a number of bones all strongly fastened 

together. They are called by a name which I wish to hear 
you all pronounce, when I write it on the blackboard. It 

is Vertebrae. Let me hear it from all together Verte- 

hrce. One of these bones is called a Vertebra ; and the 

plural is vsrtebrce. Now, all answer together. The 

backbone is composed of a number of bones called 



Lesson XVIIL] 63 

vertehrce, each bone being called a vertehra. The 

whole together is generally known as the vertebral col- 
umn. Willie, you may repeat the last sentence The 

vertahrce are often called the vertebral column. This column 

of bones is the central framework of the body and 

to them all the others are .fastened or attached. 

I said that all these bones are fastened strongly 

together. Do you know the name of the substance with 
which they are fastened ? It is called cartilage or 
GRISTLE ; or these fastenings that bind bones together are 
often called ligaments. I will repeat the sentence to 
hear you pronounce these words. The bones are firmly 

.fastened together with strong bands or Ugaments, 

which consist of cartialge or gristle. 

We will next refer to the bones of the leg. We will only 
need to name those of one leg. First, from the hip to the 

knee is a long bone called the Femur. All pronounce 

this Femur ; and when we speak of the two, we call 

them Femora, — not Femurs. We would say the two 

femora. These are the bones of the thigh. From the 

knee to the ankle are two bones. The larger and stronger 
of these is called the Tibia, and the smaller are Fibula. 

Repeat that, Willie I'he larger of the two leg bones is 

the Tibia, and the smaller the Fibula. What is the thigh 
bone called ? David ? The thigh bone is called the Femur. 

There are a number of bones in the ankle. They go 

under the name of Tarsus. The ankle is called the 

tarsus. And the prefix Meta means beyond. Now of 

what will Metatarsus be the name? George? The 

bones of the foot would be the metatarsus because they are 
beyond the tarsus. And after this come the bones of the 
toes. They are called by the same name as the bones of 
the fingers. They are called Phalanges. (Sound the b 
long, as though ee.) This is a Latin word and means 
ranks. It was applied to the ranks of men in an army. 
The first row, or ran^ would be called the first Pha- 
lanx. And the second row would be the second 

Phalanx, and so on. And since these bones are in rows, 

connected by joints, they are called phalanges. Each 

row is a .phalanx. The ankle bones form the tarsus, 



54 [Lesson XVIIl. 

the foot, tlie metatarsus and the toes the phalanges. 

Next is the arm. From the shoulder to the elbow is 

one bone called the Humerus. This is also called the 

upper arm bone. Then there are two bones in the 

lower arm, j ust as there were in the ■ leg. But they 

have different navies. The one attached on the side of 

the wrist next the thumb is the Radius, the other the 
Ulna. You can remember them in this way. Place your 

arm and hand flat on a ioarc?, and then turn the 

hand completely over. The Radius, which is attached 

nearest to the fhumb, turns round the Ulna. 

When we turn our hand over, then the bone which is turn- 
ing round the other is tlie radhis and, that 

around which it turns is the ulna. You may name 

the bones of the arm again. 1st The hum&'us or 

upper arm. 2d The radius and ulna, or bones of 

the lower arm. Then the wrist bones receive the name 

Carpus; and like ttie metatarsus, beyond the carpus 

will be the metacarj)us or the palm of the hand. 

And the fingers we have already called the .phalanges. 

The bones of the head will form the subject of another 
lesson. But we still have several others. The breat-bone 

receives the name of Sternum. Repeat that, Frank 

The breast-hone is called the sternum. And between it and 

the bones of the back, or as we called them the 

vertebral column are several long bones called the ribs. 

Then from the breast-bone or sternum a long bone 

extends to the shoulder. It is called the clavicle, or 

COLLARBONE. You can easily feel it in the nech. Its 

name, again, is the clavicle. Attached to the back- 
bone is the shoulder-blade, which is called the Scapula. 

The collar-bone is the c/ai'zc^e and the shoulder-blade 

the scaputa. 

As I point to the different bones in this boy's body, you 

may answer their names. 1st the vertebral column ; 

2d the femora; 3d the tibia and .fibula ; 4th 

the tarsus ; 5th the metatarsus ; 6th the phalanges ; 

7th the humerus; 8th the radius and ulna; 

9th the carpus ; 10th the metacarpus ; 11th the 

phalanges ; 12th the sfei'nwn ; 13th the ribs ; 14th 



Lesson XIX.] 55 

the clavu'le ; 15tli ihesccqyula. The bones of the 

head we leave for another lesson. 

(This lesson may be divided into three or more parts, at 
the discretion of the teacher, according to the advancement 
and capabilities of the scholars. The same will apply to 
other lessons. What you do, be sure and do well 
however slowly.) 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XIX. 



Natural Science — Organic and Inorganic Bodies. 



I observe two boys not in a proper position. They may 

stand up. A good, position i| necessary to secure good 

attention. 

Our lesson to-day is about Organic and Inorganic 
Bodies. Who can tell me what an organic body is ? I see 
several hands up. I want to see what kind of answers we 

will receive. Fred ? An animal. Mary ? Atiimals 

and plants. George? Jiy answer was like the last. 

Well, would milk be organic or not ? Sarah ? Organic. 

And it is neither an animal nor a .plant. I see that 

you will be able to tell better after our lesson has proceeded 
further. The boys who are standing may now sit. 

An animal's body consists (See No. IV.) of a collection 

of ? The eye is an organ. The nerves are 

organs. The skin is an organ, sjndi the whole body is 

a collection of organs. Each organ performs some 

function. Now do you think plants have any organs? 
Well, Sam ? Are the leaves of plants organs ? Yes, they 



56 [Lesson XIX. 

are. I am happy to know that we have one boy who thinks 

some. Have they any other organs? George? The 

roots I think would he called organs. You are correct. 
Do you think the sap is an organ ? or the blood of an 

animal ? or milk ? No sir. No they are not. But they 

are produced by certain organs. Is gum an organ of a 

tree ? No sir. You think it is not for it does not per- 
form any .function. But since flowers are necessary to 

produce fruit, they are organs. So is the bark, for if 

it is stripped off, the plant or tree dies. The organs of 

plants, 1 now wish to tell you, are called Organic. And 
so are all those substances produced by these organs. Is 

the starch of a potato organic, or not ? Alice ? Yes sir, 

the starch of potatoes is organic. Is sugar organic, or not ? 

Lizzie? Yes sir, sugar is organic. Why? It is 

organic because it is produced by the organs of plants. Very 

well. What would you say of wine ? Annie ? I think' 

it IS organic. You think so because it is produced by 

the organs of plants. Anything that is produced, then, by 

the organs of plants, eiavfeW as these organs themselves, 

will be organic. 

N®w how is it about animals ? The same will be true 

of them. Every part of an animal is organic. 

And anything that is the prockict of animals is also 

organic. Eaise hands those who can give me examples of 
organic substances from animals. I want to see every hand 

raised. Try and think of them. Well, Willie? Leather 

is organic. Good. George ? Butter is orgaiiic. Lizzie ? 

Woolen cloth. Very good. Allie? Combs that are 

made of horn are organic. Or in two words horn combs, 

Thomas ? Qlue is organic. Fannie ? Fur is organic. 

Weil, that is sufficient. Hands down. Is india-rubber 

organic ? Charlie ? Yes sir, it is made from the sap of 

a tree. All these various substances and many 

others, which we have not 'mentioned axQ organic. 

Now raise hands those who can tell me what an organic 

substance is. Henry? An organic substance is either 

an organ of a plant or aniTnal, or it is some product of the 
organs of plants or anim,als. That is an excellent definition. 
Now who can repeat it? Hands up. All whose hands 



Lesson XIX.] 57 

are not raised will remain at recess and write it three times 
upon their slates. George, you will please write it for them 
on the blackboard. 

We want to continue this lesson a little farther. What 

would you call ])ure water? Is it organic? JVb sir. 

What is the opposite of organic ? Place the prefix in before 

it. All answer Inorganic. This word means nol 

organic. Water, then, is inorganic. Give me other 

inorganic substances. Hands up. Harry? Glass. 

Mary? Paper. What, is paper inorganic? What is 

it made of? Hags, Uraw, dc And are these not 

organic? Then paper, Mary, is organic. Well, 

Charlie? Iron. Yes, that is correct. George? 

Granite rock. Good. Emma? Sand. These things 

are all inorgardc, because they are neither produced 

from the organs of plants or animals, nor are they the 

organs themselves. 

The whole world, then, is made up or composed of 

these two kinds of matter. What kinds? Bessie? 

Organic and Inorganic. Make the whole statement 

The whole world is composed of two kinds of matter^ 
Organic and Inorganic. 



58 [Lesson XX. 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XX. 



Physiology — Circulation of Blood. 



Every eye must be directed toward your teacher, and 

every voice must be heard in giving each anstoer. To 

answer properly you have to give good attention. 

Every animal's body contains a fluid, generally of a red 
color, which nourishes it. "When any part of the flesh is 

cut, this fluid flows out. It is called the blood. The 

blood is a .flw'd which is found in the bodies of 

animals. It is of a red color. We are to speak to-day 

of the blood and how it circulates through the body. When 

I say that it circulates I mean ? What do 1 mean 

when I say that money circulat es ? Frank ? Yoic mean 

that it moves round. And if I saw that the blood circu- 
lates I mean that it moves round. It moves round or 

circulates through the body. A long time ago 

people did not know that the blood was continually 

running through the body, or circulating. It was dis- 
covered by a man whose name was Harvey in the year — . 

Previous to this the blood was not known to circulate. 

I will tell you how you can each prove that it does 

circulate. If you take a delicate membrane of a living 
animal, such as the web of a frog's foot, and look into it 
carefully through a microscope, holding it in the sunshine, 
you will see the particles of blood moving through the 



Lesson XX.] 59 

minute bloodvessels. This will prove, Annie, that the 

bhod circuJates. I used the word particles just now. I 
want a better word. Well, as there are no hands up I 
will write two. Corpuscules and Globules. You may- 
all repeat these words as I point to them Corpuscules 

or Globules. When you cut the hand what happens, 

Sam? It blee<h. Very well; and alter it has ceased 

bleeding, did you ever see another clear liquid, much like 

the white of an egg, flow out slowly? Yes sir. Now 

the globules or rorpuscules are floating in this clear 

liquid. Do you know their shape? They are not round 
like shot, nor like grains of sand, nor like split peas, but, 
strange as it may appear, they resemble cents or other 

coins. An object of the shape of a cent is called a 

DISC. All repeat a disc. What about a disc, Susan ? 

An object the shape of a cent is called a disc. George, 

you may give the shape of the globules of blood The 

globules or coiyuscules of blood are small discs. That 

means that they are the shape of coins. And I have 

told you that if you look carefully into the web of a 

frog's foot, you can see these globules, of the shape of 

coins, sliding through the small bloodvessels, thus 

showing that the blood continually circulates. 

In speaking of organs and their functions, we remarked 

that the organ which circulates the blood is the 

heart. (See No. IV.) How does the heart circulate *it ? 
Are there any other organs required ? Yes s>r, the blood- 
vessels. Is not the heart a bloodvessel ? A bloodvessel iis 
simply a vessel that contains blood, just as a school- 
house is a house used for a school. I will tell you that 

diflerent names are given to different bloodvessels, but they 
may all be called by one general name. I will write it. 
The circulatory system. Why is it so called ? Mary ? 

Because it is the system of vessels through which the 

blood circulates. Very wall expressed indeed. James, 
you may also give that statement. (He gives it.) Of how 
many parts does this circulatory system consist? We 
will see. 

First there is the organ that causes it to circulate, 

that is the heart. Then the blood flows from the heart 



60 [Lesson XX. 

through a number of long tubes throughout the whole 

body. These tubes are called Arteries. What about 

arteries, Genie? The tubes that lead the blood from the 

heart to the body are called arteries. In the third place 
there is another set of tubes, different from the arteries, 

which conduct the blood back again from the body to 

the heart. These are the Veins. Raise hands all 

who can tell the difference between arteries and veins ? 

Emily? The arteries cany the bhod from the heart to 

the different parts of the body, while the veins conduct it 
bach to the heart. That is well done. But I observed 
several whose hands were not raised. We will repeat. 

The first part of the circulatory system is 1st the heart ; 

2d tJie arteries ; and 3d the veins. 

But now I will ask a puzzling questiou : How does the 
blood get out of the arteries into the veins ? Let me tell 
you. At first the blood flows through only one artery. 

This one branches into two parts, one of which goes 

dotvnwards (use gestures) and one upwards. Then 

these seperate into different branches, and each branch 

becomes divided up, so as to send a small artery to each of 

the different parts. At last these divide up into very 

minute vessels, the name of which I will write upon the 
board. Capillary Vessels. There is another name. 
Cellular Tissue. It is called so because the vessels are 
so small as to appear like a tissue of small cells. All may 

give me the first name again Capillary vessels. And 

the other Cellular tissue. We will use the first name. 

The blood flows out of the arteries into the capillary 

vessels through which it passes into the veins. How does 
the blood get from the arteries into the veins? George ? 

It flows through the capillary vessels, which join the 

ends of the arteries to the ends of the veins. Very well. 

These four parts, the Heart, the Arteries, the Capillary 

vessels and the Veifis, form a complete set or system 

of vessels, which receive the name of " The Circulatory 

System," because through this system of vessels the 

blood circulates. This circulatory system, then, 

consists of 1st The heart; 2d The arteries ; 3d 

ITie Capillary vessels; 4th ITie veins. The organ 



Lesson XXI.] 61 

which causes the blood to circulate is (he heart. It 

forces the blood into the arteries, ir ova. them it flows 

through the Capillary vessels into the veins, hom 

which it again enters iJie heart to be again sent or 

drcvlated through the body. The difference between 

the arteries and the veins is that the arteries carry the 

blood from the heart to the body, whereas, Archie, the veins 
carry it back from the body to the heart. 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XXI. 



Chemistry — Oxygen — Flame. 



The best method to obtain the full amount of benefit 
from a lesson is to give strict attention. 

The air is composed (See No. XI.) of several different 

kinds of ga^. The two principal gases are, 1st 

oxygen, which is the most im'portant, and 2d nitro- 
gen. The nitrogen is mixed with the oxygen, in order 

to dilute it, that is, to make it not quite so strong. 

With one part of oxygen are mixed .four "parts of 

nitrogen. And so we say that the air is one-fifth oxygen 

and four-fifths nitrogen. The oxygen, again, you tell 

me is the most important oi i\xe?>'d two gases. We 

are to speak of this gas in our lesson to-day. 

When we breathe in the air, it consists of oxygen 

and nitrogen. Now I will tell you that while it is in our 

? What are the organs of breathing? (See No. IV.) 

James ? The lungs. While the air is in our lungs, 

ITS OXYGEN IS TAKEN UP BY THE BLOOD. Aggie, repeat 



62 [Lesson XXI. 

that. Here is a girl wiio lias not been attending. Do you 
not feel ashamed to see such a forest of hands ^all around 

you ? Emily ? While the air is in our lungs its oxygen 

IS taken up by the blood. Who can give me a better word 

for "taken up?' Emma? Abstracted. That is an 

excellent word. Is there another? I will write one. 

Absorbed. The oxygen is absorbed, or abstracted, 

or taken away by tJie blood, while the air is in 

the lungs. And when we breathe out again, the air that 

comes forth must be the ? What other gas went in 

with oxygen, to dilute it? Nitrogen. Well, if the 

oxygen is taken from it by the blood, or, in other words, 

if the oxygen is absorbed, by the blood, the air that 

comes forth from the lungs must be nitrogen. Yes. If 

wheat and chaff are put through a fanning mill, and the 
wheat is taken away while going through, what would 

come forth alone? The chaff. But we breathe out other 

things besides the nitrogen. I will tell you of them in our 
lesson on animal respiration. (See No. XXVI.) 

Now, I want you all to watch closely what I do. I have 

here a large glass .jar, which has a very large neck. 

(A confectionery jar will suit.) Here 1 also have n 

piece of candle, (about an inch or two long) which I will 
light. I will now drop some melted tallow on this board, 

and thus cause the candle to adhere to it without any 

candlestick, for that would make it too large. You 

now see that the candle burns quite xuell ; another word 

readily. Why does it burn ? Let me explain. You 

told me once that heat would change solids into liquids, 

and liquids into gases. Well, the heat of the flame 

changes the solid tallow to a liquid. It then 

changes the liquid to the form of a gas. This gas 

is hot, and as it ascends the heat of the flame causes it to 
UNITE or COMBINE with the oxygen, which you told me we 

find in the air. This union or combination of the 

evaporated tallow with the oxygen, we call flame. 

It is another kind of Chemical Action. When did we 

ever speak of chemical action before ? In our lesson on 

the sources of heat. Now, I am going to find out all in 
this room who can reason well. Suppose I put this jar 



Lesson XXL] 63 

over the candle, and allow it to burn inside the jar, 

where there is only very little o;r?/^e«, and where no 

more oxygen can enter after it is all used up, what 

do you think would happen to the flame ? Hands up. 
Why here are actually two girls and a boy who cannot tell ! 
Can you tell me this? When all the tallow is gone, what 

would happen to the flame? It would go out. Most 

ceitiinly it would. Well, hands down. And, you think 

if all the oxygen in the jar becomes used up, the 

candle will (jo out. There, you see, it has just gone out ! 

That was because there was no more oxygen. I heard one 

boy say tallow. All the oxygen was u^ed up. Now 

that we have got through with the experiment I will ask 

for a better word than "used up." Mary? Gone. 

Fred ? Burnt up. George ? Exhausted. These were 

all good words but the last one we will use. The oxygen 

all became exhausted or used «jo, and consequently 

the candle wentoutov^diS extinguished. But th^re 

was still plenty of nitrogen ; why should it not burn there 

just as well? Emma? You told us that the nitrogen 

ivas only to dilute the oxygen. There is a girl who has a 
good memory. That is correct. It was for this reason that 

I told you that the oxygen was the most Important. 

Now I will tell you a little anecdote. You may assist 
me by elliptical answers ; that is by filling up the pauses 
that I make. This country is India. In the Presi- 
dency of Bengal is the city to which I now point 

Calcutta. All answer again Calcutta. A ilindoo 

monarch once took one hundred and forty-six men as prison- 
ers at this city. He then shut them up in a dungeon that 
had only one means of admitting the light. That was 
where they entered. Because it was so black or dark it 
was always afterwards known as " The Black Hole of 

Calcutta." This would be just what I did with the 

candle. He shut them up in the htark hole, where 

there was not much air. And what do you think 

became of them ? Harry? They died. Yes, all but 

twenty-three of them died! How many died? One 

hundred and tioenty-three of them died. When they went 
to take these prisoners out, only twenty-three of them 



64 [Lesson XXII. 

were alive. Now do you think it would do for us to remain 
in the schoolroom all day without having the windows or 

doors occasionally opened to let in the air ? No sir. 

No, we continually require fresh air that contains good 

wholesome oxygen. 

When we breathe we take in oxyger^ and nitrogen. 

While in our lungs the oxygen is absorbed. Then 

only the nitrogen is left. When a flame hums, the 

material that burns is emiting or combiiiing with 

oxygen. (Point to such words on the board as you 

want.) If we burn a candle in a jar, into which no oxyen 

can enter, the candle soon goes out, or becomes 

extinguished. Neither fire would burii, nor life 

continue, if we were deprived of oxygen. 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XXII. 



Physiology — Circulation of the Blood. 



The girl who spoke just now may raise her right hand. 
No one ? Any one who knows who spoke may raise their 
hand. Ella, you will leave your place, and write the first 
ten lines of your reading lesson on your slate. This is for 
speaking. You will also remain at recess. This will be 
for not acknowledging that you spoke. And the girl to 
whom she spoke will also remain with her for not letting 
me know. 

Our lesson this morning is on a subject of which we have 
already spoken, " The Circulation of the Blood." (See 



Lesson XXII.] 65 

No. XX.) The blood circulates througli a number of ves- 
sels that form, a complete system, called the circu- 
latory system. This system consists of .four parts ; 1st 

The heart; 2d The arteries ; 3d The capillary 

vessels, ^m\ A-ih. The veins. The blood flows from the 

veins into theheart. This organ forces it into the 

arteries, from which it passes through the capillary 

vessels into tJie veins, and on again in the same 

waw^er throughout the circulatory system. We wi^h 

to describe this system of blood-ve-ssels more minutely in 

our lesson to-day. So all must be very attentive and 

answer .promptly. 

If the blood flows through the heart it must have some 

space in it, or it must be holloiv. How many spaces 

are there in the heart ? I will tell you ; there are four 

spaces in the heart. Two of them are above, and two 

heloiu. The two upper spaces are smaller than the 

two lower ones. They are called Auricles. One is the 

Right Auricle and the other will be the left auricle. 

Left Auricle. (Write these names.) Auricle means 

LITTLE EAR ; and the auricles of the Jteart are so called 

on account of their shape being similar to that of the 

ears. Then the two lower spaces are called Ventricles. 

One will be the Faght Ventricle, and the other The 

Left Ventricle. I have just told you that the ventricles 

are larger than the auricles. Was that just as we said 

it? No sir. How did we state it before ? Louisa? 

The auricles are smaller than the Ventricles. Very good ; 

and consequently the lower spaces or ventricles Sire 

larger than the auricles. 

Now, before we go on, give me a better word than 
"spaces." A space would be a space still, even if it were 
not enclosed by walls. We can imagine an inch space in 

this large room. T want a word which means an 

enclosed space. Let me write it. Compartment. What 

does it mean, James? An enclosed space. And since 

the heart has four enclosed spaces we will call them 

the four cotnpartments of the heart. 

Well, if you will all endeavor to remember it, I will tell 
9 



66 [Lesson XXII. 

you that the veins all unite or .join and form at last 

only one vem. This vein enters the right auricle. 

Raise hands all who can state which compartment the 
blood enters from the veins. Here are two who evidently 

were not attending. They fail to raise their hands. 

Well, Carrie? The hlood first enters the right auricle. 

This is the upper, right hand compartment. It is then 

forced out of the right auricle, downwards into the 

right veidricle. This is the lower right hand com- 
partment. When this is full it contracts, or draics 

together., (See No XIII.) and causes the blood to flow into 
THE LUNGS. It is in the lungs that it is supplied with air 

while we breathe. It is then conducted back to the 

left auricle, out of which it flows into the left ventricle 

which is immediately below the left auricle. From the 

left ventricle it flows into the arteries. And you know 

its course after this. It flows out of the arteries into 

the veins. Then it goes back to the heart and 

follows the same course over again. (Revise this once or 
tv;ice. Give this lesson at least six times, but not in 
Buccession. Make a circle on the blackboard and divide it 
into four equal parts. Place the letters R. A., L, A., R. 
v., L. v., and make a roiigh representation of the lungs, 
arteries and veins. Arteries carry the blood to the lungs, 
and the veins carry it back to the L. A.) You may be 
anxious to know how the blood gets from one place to 
another, or what causes it to move. I will tell you this 
in another lesson. 



Lesson XX III.] 67 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XXIII. 



Natural Science — Evaporation of "Water. 



Now, I wish to see every scholar endeavoring to receive 
the full benefit of the lesson. To do this, it is neces- 
sary to give strict attention so as to be able to ansicer 

prorapthj. Every eye this loay. 

Heat converts solids into liquids (See No. V. and X.) 

and liquids into gases. The conversion of a liquid like 

water into a gas like steam, that is, into a gaseous 

form, is called ,? Do you not remember that we said 

that the process of changing water to vapor M'as called 

Evaporation? All repeat this word Evaporation. 

This means the process of changing water to steam. 

Our lesson to-day, is upon this subject. All listen atten- 
tively as we proceed. 

In order to cause the water to evaporate we require to 

heatii. The heat will cause it to evaporate. Well, 

suppose we place a kettle of water on the fire and allow it 

to become Iwt, it will get hotter and hotter until at 

last it ? "What do you call that bubbling motion of the 

hot water? Boiling. At last, then, it would.'.. ...ioiA 

Now I wish to tell you that after the water in an ordinary 
kettle or pot has begun to boil, it cannot be made ant 
HOTTER ! No matter how long we keep it on the .fire, 



68 [Lesson XXIII. 

unless it is in a tight vessel like the boiler of a steam 

engine, where the steam cannot get out or escaj)e, it 

cannot be made any hotter. Is not this a curious thing? 

We keep heating the water, that is, adding more heat 

to it^ but cannot increase its heat. Why is this ? Where 

does the heat go? What becomes of it? Let us investi- 
gate this matter. 

Can any one tell me, first, how hot water must get before 

it boils? George? 212 degrees. The water must have 

its temperature raised to 212 degrees before it will 

boil, and I have told you that it cannot be made any hotter 

in the open air than 212 degrees, which, George says, is 

the point of heat at which it ..hails. We stated in a former 

lesson that the air presses on the earth's surface with a 

pressure of 15 pounds on every square inch. Now, as 

the water becomes hot, the heat is used up in forming 

steam. The steam tries to get out of the water (so to 

speak) rapidly as it occupies so much more space than 

the water; but the pressure of the air keeps it in as 

long as it can, till, at last, when the water reaches the heat 

of 212 degrees, the air by its .pressure can no longer 

keep the vapor in the water, and so it comes out in the 

process of boiling. Then when the water begins to hoit, 

all the heat that enters it is used up in forming steam or 

vapor, which escapes as rapidly as it is .formed. 

This vapor, it is, that carries off the heat. This is the 

reason, then, that the water cannot be made any hotter 

after reaching the temperature of 212 degrees. 

Now will any one tell me another word for used up ? 
Instead of saying " used up " which is not a very elegant 
expression, there are better words. I do not see any hands 
up. Well, here is one. Let us write it. Expended. 
Now, let us repeat the sentence in which this word occurs. 

All the heat is expended, or used up, in forming 

steaon, which flies off very rapidly as soon as the water 

boils. As the steam or vapor, goe.^ off, it carries 

with it a great quantity of heat. Lizzie, repeat that 

All the heat is expended in forming steam, widch flies 

off very rapidly as soon as the ivater boils. As the vctpor 
goes off it carries with it much heat. Now for another 



Lesson XXIIL] 69 

word for " flies ofi'" or "goes off." Harry Escapes. 

The steam is said to escape. Mary, you may repeat 

that statement and use this word. (She repeats.) We 

said that all the heat, after the water hoils is 

expended in .forming steam. I want also another word 

for forming. Willie? Making. Julia? Producing. 

This is the one we will use. After the water hoils all 

the lieat is expended in .producing steam or vapor. 

Now the pressure of the atmosphere at the earth's 

surface is 15 pounds on every square inch ; and as we 

ascend the air becomes much.. ..rarer, and consequently 

the pressure is much less. I will tell you that it 

becomes so much less at the height of about three miles, 
that water begins to boil long before it reaches the temper- 
ature of two hundred and twelve degrees. The pressure 

of the steam, as it tries to escape from the water, has 

less of the pressure of the air to overcome, so that 

"boiling,'' or the escape of the steam commences 

rapidly before the water becomes very hot. A French 

philosopher named Gay Lusac, in performing the ascent of 
a mountain in France, took, among other things, some eggs 
and potatoes for provisions. But when they tried to boil 
them after reaching the summit, they failed ; the water 
" boiled " long before it became hot enough to cook the 

eggs or .potatoes. Why, James ? Because the air has 

so little pressure at that height. And, consequently, the 
steam can force itself out in bubbles and cause the water 

to boil before it gets very hot. And as soon as the 

water boils it cannot then be made any hotter. 

What then, becomes of the heat, Fannie ? It is used tip 

or expended in forming or producing vapor. The process 
of producing. ..vapor irom.... water is called evaporation. 

Now quickly. Heat causes water to evaporate. The 

water gradually becomes hotter, till it reaches the tem- 
perature of. 212 degrees, when it begins to boil and 

can be made no hotter, no matter how long we keep it 

on the fire. All the heat, after it boils is 

expended in .2)roducing vapor, and is carried off or 

escapes in the vapor. The pressure of the air prevents 

its boiling until its temperature is 212 degrees. But 



70 [Lesson XXIV. 

if carried some three miles above the earth's surface, 

water will hoil long before reaching 212 degrees. 

This is because in the upper regions there is too little 

pressure to prevent the escape of the steam, before 

the water becomes hot. 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XXIV. 



I 



Astronomy — The Solar System. 



Boys and girls who wish to improve arts always very 

diligent, and give their best attention, during the 

progress of a lesson. Then all sit.... upr'ight Siud.... attend. 

You all know from our former lessons that the earth's 
form is rou?id like a ball, or globular or spheri- 
cal. You also know what its motions are. It has two 

v)iotio?is. 1st the revolutionary motion, and 2d its 

rotatory motior,.. Now I wish you to tell me about the 

revolutionary motion. (See No. VII.) Lizzie? Its 

revolutionary motion is performed round the sun once in 
each year. The earth then revolves round the sun. 

Raise hands all who can tell me whether there is any 
other world besides ours that revolves round the sun. 

Willie ? The m.oon. Well, the moou I must explain to 

you revolves around the earth while it revolves Ground the 
sun. Is there any other world revolving round the sun as 
the earth does ? I will tell you. There are many others. 
We are to speak of some of them in our lesson to-day. 
(You may state that there are " many " planets, because 
the asteroids between Mars and Jupiter, which number 



I 



Lesson XXIV.] 71 

over one hundred, are separate planets, and revolve 
independently around the sun.) 

Do you think the earth is the nearest world to the sun? 
Before I call on those who have their hands up we will 
find a word to use instead of "worlds," Ours is called 

" the earth " or " the world " to distinguish it from the 

rest. What word is used for them all ? I will tell you. 
Planets. I will write it on the blackboard. All answer 

planets. If you go out on aolear bright night and 

look up at the stars carefully, you will see a few that are 
shining with a clear steady light, while all the others 
around them twinkle or flicker. James, repeat that. (He 

repeats.) Now those that do not twinkle are planets, 

that is, they revolve round the sun, as our earth 

does. Now you may raise hands for my other question. 
Is there any other planet nearer to the sun than the earth? 

Sam? J^o sir. Here is a boy who is merely guessing. 

Annie? Yes sir. How many? Four, ilere is a 

girl who is only guessin;]. Now in such a question as 

this it only wastes our time to raise hands unless you know. 

George ? There are two planets nearer to the sun than 

the earth. That is correct. Do you know what their names 

are, George? No sir. Does any one ? 1 see no hands 

up. Well, all look this way. I will write the name of 
the first one on our blackboard. Mercury. I must tell 
you how it got this name. Some of the ancients did not 

know about God as we do; they had a great many 

gods. Now these gods, they believed, kept one god as a 

messenger. In carrying the ?nessages of the gods, 

you think he would have to move very qnichly. They 

called his name Mercury. And because this planet 

(Have a representation on the blackboard, and point to 
each one as they answer. Only put down one at a time. 

The sun first in the centre.) is nearest to the sun, it is 

attracted so strongly by the sun that it is caused to 

revolve the most rapidly of all the planets. Hence it 

was called Mercury. It is the swiftest of all the 

planets^ Mercury is nearer to the sun than the earth. 

Well, what is the next planet in order from the sun ? 
We will place its name upon the board. Venus. This 



72 [Lesson XXIV. 

was the name of another of the gods of the ancients. 
Venus was a goddess. She was the goddess of beauty. 
And Venus which is the bright star we sometimes see early 
in the evening, is so beautiful that it gets the name of this 

goddess. Mercury is the .first planet in order and 

it gets its 7ia7?ze because it revolves so swiftly. It 

is called after the god Ifercwy who acted as Tues- 

senger for the gods. Next is T'ewMS, called after the 

goddess of beauty, because it is so beautiful. We 

have now mentioned how many? Two. And these are 

both nearer to the sun than the earth. What are 

their names? Kate? Mercury and Venus. And as I 

said there were only two nearer the sun than the 

earth is, the next planet in order will be the earth, the 

earth on which we live. How curious it is to think 

that our earth is a great ball revolving round the 

sun, along with many other balk or worlds or, as 

we called them .planets. The earth then is a .planet 

and is the thii"d in order among the planets. 

Now, we are not to name any others m this lesson, but 
you may all investigate this matter before our next lesson. 
We have, however, some other things to say. Do you know 
what name is given to the two planets. Mercury and Venus, 
because they are at a less distance from the sun than the 
earth ? They are called Inferiok. You may all repeat 

this word Inferior. What about inferior? Charlie? 

Mercury and Venus are called inferior planets. What 

would your mother mean if she said that she had some 

very inferior flour? She would mean that it was not 

good. Now do we mean to say that Mercury and Venus 

are not worth as much as the other planets ? No sir. 

What, then, does it mean? George? We mean tliat 

Mercury and Venus are nearer to the sun than the earth. 

And they are therefore called inferior planets. What 

is the opposite of inferior? Let us write it. Superior. 

The planets that are more distant from the sun than 

the earth are called superior planets. Ella, repeat 

that The planets that are more distant from the sun than 

the earth are called superior planets. I will tell you their 
names in another lesson. Is the earth a superior or an 



Lesson XXV.] 73 

inferior planet ? Mary ?.,.... Inf&ior, Alice ? 8u2oerior. 

George, which of them do you consider correct? 

Neither of them. Why? If Mercury and Venus are 

inferior to the earth, and the others that are farther off are 
superior, the earth cannot he either. That answer is very 
well given. The earth is neither.... «?/mor uoy.... superior. 

Now quickly. Our earth revolves round the sun. 

So do many other bodies called planets. The planets 

shine with a steady light, while other stars twinkle. 

The first in order is Mercury^ the second Venus, 

and third the Earth. Mercury and Venus, being nearer 

to the sun than the earth, are called inferior planets, 

those beyond the earth are called superior. 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XXV. 



Natural Science — "Wind. 



The climate of a country (See lesson on climate — its 

elements,) we have said, consists of three things. 1st 

Temperature, 2d Moisture, 3d Prevailing Winds. 

"What is wind ? When the air moves it makes a 

wind. Then wind is air in motion. Libbie, repeat 

that Wind is air in motion. And since it does not 

always blow in the same direction inmost countries, we 

said prevailing winds, that is those that are most com- 
mon. But why should the air move at all ? Can anythiog 

that is not alive move of itself? No sir. Then what 

moves the air ? We will try and find out. 
10 



74 [Lesson XXV. 

In our lesson on heat we said that one of its effects 

is to cause the substance that is heated to grow. larger 

or expand. (See No. V.) Now the heat of the sun's 

rays passes through the air without heating it, but the 
ground becomes heated, and heats the particles of air 

along the earth's surface. And what effect did you 

tell me heat would have on any substance ? It expands 

it. And so it will expand the air, or make it become 

larger. 

Now, if we were to take a gallon of cold air and heat it, 

it would expand ov become larger. Then would it 

all remain in the gallon measure? No sir. Part of it 

would flow out of it. Would that which remained in, 

weigh as much as the gallon full of cold air? No sir. 

Then it would be ? If it did not weigh as much, it 

would be lighter. 

We will revise a little. The sun's heat does not heat 

the air as it passes through iV, but it heats the ground. 

This heats the particles of mVthat He on its surface. 

The heat has what effect on them ? It expands them. It 

expands the air or makes it grow larger. And as it 

expands it becomes Hgther. Now when we place a 

piece of wood under the surface of water, does it remain 

there? No sir. It .floats. Why? It is lighter 

than the tuater. And therefore it rises through the 

wate?', and comes to the surface. Now, what would the 

light, hot air do ? Have you ever seen the motion of the 
air round a hot stove pipe ? I want to see all who observe 
the little things they see every day. James, what do you 

think the hot air would do? It would rise. That is 

correct, it would rise, just as the wood rises in water. 

And so the smoke rises, because it is hot, and 

therefore much lighter than the surrounding air. 

Hot flames also rise. Can you not give me a better 

word than rise? All think. Hands up. Emma? 

Ascend. Eight, and so you conclude that after the air 

becomes hot and therefore very light it will 

ascend. George, repeat that When the air becomes hoi 

and expanded and light, it will ascend. And if there is 
nothing remaining in the place it has left, what will hap- 



Lesson XXV.] 75 

pen ? Suppose I take a board and make a space or hole in 

the water, does the space remain long empty? No sir. 

The water you think rushes m and .fills it up. Now 

if the air gets hot and light, and ascends or goes up or 

rises, what would you expect then to take place? 

The surrounding air tvould rush in and fill up the space. 
Very good. And this rushing in of the air is what we call 

wind. Who will now state this cause of wind? 

Annie? When the air gets heated and light it rises or 

ascends, and the surrounding air rushes in to supply its 

place and forms a wind. Raise hands all who will state 
this. Charlie ? (He repeats it.) 

In this country the wind does not always blow in the 

same direction. This kind of wind is called ? It 

is called vaeiable ; that means changeable. These winds 

are called variableov changeable, because they blow 

in different directions. But there are places where the 

wind always blows in the same direction. I will tell you 
why in another lesson. 

There are other causes of wind besides what we have 
stated. But this is the principal cause. Now all answer 

rapidly. "When the air at the earth's surface becomes 

heated it expands or grows larger. It thus 

becomes lighter, and like wood in water ascends or 

rises. The surrounding air then rushes in, to 

supply its .place. This is what we call a wind. 

Then wind is simply air in motion. 



70 [lesson XXVI. 



OEAL TRAmmG LESSOxN. 

NO. XXVI. 



Physiology — Respiraticn. 



I wish to see every eye fixed on me. Our lesson to-day 
is upon the breathing of animals. The word which is 

generally used is ? I will write it. Respiration. 

This is another word, Mary, instead of breathing. 

Charlie, what term is used instead of breathing? 

Mespiratioyi. 

There are two processes that require to be continued 
constantly, in order to support the life of an animal. These 
are Eating and Breathing. By the first the body is 

supplied with -food; and by the second it is furnished 

with air. Deprive an animal of either .food or air, 

and it will die. Both of these processes are necessary 

to support its life. If we value them according to the 

time that either process may be interrupted, the most 

im])ortant will be breathing, for we can live some days 

without .food. 

What are the organs of respiration? (See No. IV.) 

Hands up. Fannie? The lungs are the oryans of 

respiration. We continually breathe the air into our 

lungs. There is one word which means to breathe in 

and another which means to breathe out. What are they ? 
I will show you. The Latin word Spiro means TO breathe ; 



Lesson XXVI.] 77 

and the prefix In means into. Ex also means out. Now 
if we use the root (See No. XIII.) spire and place the 

prefix In before it, we have the word Inspire, vfhich. 

will mean to breathe in. Now as you have told me the 

word " breathe in," you can doubtless tell me the word for 

"breathe out." It is expire. Yes. We inspire and 

expire ; that is, we breathe in and breathe out again. 

Willie, you may repeat that. (He does so.) 

You already know that the air contains two gases, 

which are oxygen and nitrogen. How much is oxygen ? 

One-fifth. The other four-fifths is nitrogen. (See 

No. XI.) The nitrogen is only for the purpose of 

diluting the oxygen; the oxygen, then, is the most 

important, because without it, fire could not burn, nor 

could animals live. We are now about to inquire 

how this is. 

The blood, as it circulates through the body, on 

leaving the right ventricle of the heart passes to 

the lungs. (Explained in No. XXII.) Here it is exposed 

in very minute cells to ? What do we breathe into 

our lungs? Air. We inspire or breathe iti air. 

Then, in the lungs the blood is exposed to the air that 

is supplied by the process of breathing. What happens 

at this time ? Why do you think oxygen is the most 
important gas ? I will tell you. The blood, while in the 

lungs TAKES UP THE OXYGEN of the air that is inspired. 

Can you give me a better word than " takes up ?" A 
sponge takes up water. But we might say, George, that it 

absorbs water. Very good. That is the word. And 

the blood- absorbs the oxygen, while in the lungs. 

Well, we inspire or breathe in both oxygen and 

nitrogen. Now, can any one tell me what we expire ? that 

is what we breathe out. Hands up. Emily? We 

expire only the nitrogen. Does any one think we expire 
anything else besides nitrogen alone ? You can tell better 
when we have advanced further with our lesson. 

You have told me that in the lungs the blood absorbs 

or takes up the oxygen of the air that we 

inspire. It then flows back to the heart. From the 

heart it is sent through the arteries to all parts of 



78 [Lesson XXVI. 

the body. Now listen carefully while I impart to you 
another secret. The blood flows, bright and crimson from 

the arteries into the small capillary vessels. It is bright 

because of the oxygen that it contains. But as it 

passes through the capillary vessels, the oxygen is all used 
up by uniting or combining with the worn out parts of the 

body. It combines or unites with two substances in 

particular. These are Carbon and Hydrogen. You will 
hear more about them afterwards. When the oxygen com- 
bines with carbon it forms another kind of gas called 
Carbonic Acid Gas ; and when it combines with hydrogen 

it forms the water that comes out as vapor in our breath. 

Then, as the blood travels on through the veins it is not 

bright and crimson as it was in the arteries, but it is of 

a dark, bluish-red color. It now has in it, instead of the 

oxygen the water of which I spoke, and also the 

carbonic acid. And when it is sent again to the lungs by 

the heart it gives up both of these substances and 

they pass out in the breath. 

Now I will ask some questions. First, the one I asked a 
few minutes ago. Who can tell me what we breathe out ? 

Or, what we expire J I see nearly every hand up now. 

I can plainly see who have been attentive. George? 

We expire nitrogen, carbonic acid gas and vapor. That 
answer is perfectly correct. Who can repeat it? All who 
cannot will remain and write it ten times on their slates. 
I will get some small boy to dictate it to them. What 

happens to the blood in the lungs ? Hands up, Sam ? 

Jt absorbs oxygen. What gas is in the blood in the arter- 
ies? Kate.'' Oxygen is contained by the blood in the 

arteries. What does the oxygen combine with in the 

capillary vessels ? Bessie ? Carbon and hydrogen. And 

what two substances are formed as they unite ? Fred? 

Carbonic acid gas and water. Annie, you may tell me 

what gases we inspire and what we expire We inspire 

or breathe in oxygen and nitrogen, and we expire or breathe 
out nitrogen, carbonic acid gas and vapor. I will tell you 
that a very little of the oxygen also comes out again. But 

is only thatwhich was not taken up or absorbed by...... 

the blood. 



Lesson XXVIL] 79 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XXVII. 



Natural Science — Transmission of Heat. 



I am glad that all our scholars give such good 

attention, during our Oral Lesson, for I am always 

satisfied when scholars attend that they will surely learn. 

Raise hands all who will give me the sources of heat. 

(See No. XIV.) Emily? 1st, The jSun; 2d, Comhus- 

iion ; 3c?, Friction ; 4:th, Percussion ; bth, Chemical Action ; 

^th, Electru'ity. By the sources of heat -we mean 

where heat is obtained or derived. Well, to-day we are 

to speak of the way in which heat passes from one object 
to another. And first let us speak of the way in which 

the sun's heat passes to the earth. How does it pass ? 

In what way ? When you partly close your eyes and look 
at a lamp with a bright flame you see the light passing off 

from it in streaks. (Some such word will be given 

here.) Can you not give me a better word than streaks ? 

Willie? Lines. That word would do, but there is a 

better one. It is Rays. The light of the lamp goes off in 

RAYS. Or, we might say that the lamp sends forth rays 

of light ; instead of sends forth we will use a word that we 

have once before used. The lamp sends forth or emits 

light. It emits the light in rays. The light is then 

said to ? It is said to Radiate. Let me hear every 



8Q [Lesson XXVII. 

one pronounce it distinctly Radi'ate. Now does any- 
thing else pass off or radiate from the lamp besides the 

light? Yes sir, the heat radiates also. The heat, you 

say radiates, that is, it passes off in ra7/s. And 

this is the way in which the heat comes to us from the sun. 

It radiates horn. the sun to the earth; that is, 

it passed over in rai/s or straight lines. Annie, 

repeat this.. — The heat radiates from, the sun to the earth ; 
that is, it jMsses to it in straight lines called rays. Charlie, 

what else besides heat goes off in similar rays ? Light. 

What about it? Light radiates as heat does. This way 

is called Radiation. Heat comes to the earth from 

the sun, hy radiation. This is oneway in which 

heat is sent. Another word for " sent." Here is the 

one I wish you to use. , Teansmitted. This word consists 
of two parts. The part, " trans," means across ; and the 
second part, " mitted," means sent. What .will transmitted 

mean? Eliza? Sent across. Yes. If I tell you one 

hundred messages were transmitted over the telegraph 

lines in one day, what would I mean? Peter? You 

would mean that the messages luere " sent across " the 

country. And if we say that heat is transmitted from 

the sun to the earth, we mean that it is sent 

across. One way, then, in which it is transmitted is by 

radiation, that is, passing over in rays. 

Does heat travel or pass in any other way ? If you 
take a common pin, and try to loosen the wick of a burn- 
ing candle with it, you very soon have to loosen your hold 

of the pin. Why? Is it because the heat radiates to 

your fingers Yes sir. Now let us see. Can you hold 

your hand at the same distance from the candle without 

the pin ? Yes sir. Then why does the heat not now 

radiate, while it did so when you held the pin? George ? 

Lt does not radiate in that case. I think the pin has 

soinething to do with it. Yes, I think it has. Let us 

inquire how it happens. The pin is composed of a. 

metal. When the particles of the pin that are in the flame 

become hot, they give the heat to their neighbors that 

lie alongside them. Do they move themselves? No sir. 

They do not move, but they lead the heat along from one 



Lesson XXVIL] 81 

to another. Can you give me a word for lead ? Mary? 

Carry. Now, just think. Could they caery the 

heat, if they do not themselves move? No sir. Then 

"carry" is not the word that we wanted. Let me 

write it. Conduct. The particles of metal conduct 

the heat or lead it from one to another. This is 

another way in which heat is transmitted or 

sent across. This second way is called Conduction because 

the heat is conducted. Frank, repeat that. (He repeats.) 

Susan, you may give these two ways of transmitting heat. 
(She does so.) 

There is still another way. How is the air in a room 
heated? Or the water in a boiler? Let us investigate 

this method of transmitting heat. "When rays of heat 

pass through the air they do not have any perceptible effect 
in heating it. It has a certain name on this account. It 
is called Diathermanous. This word means that it 
allows the heat to pass through it without becoming heated. 

The air again, is diathermanous, because it allows the 

heat to .pass through it. And since the rays of heat 

pass through it, they do not heat it. But they heat the 

ground, and the ground heats the particles of air, that 

lie close to it, by the last way we named conduction. 

Then the warm particles begin to move among the 

coHer owes and this causes others to get warm. When 

they become warm they also Tnove among the colder 

ones and thus the heat is carried about. The word 

used to represent this way of transmitting heat is 

Convection, Convection means carrying, while conduc- 
tion means leading. In the last way, that is 

convection, the particles themselves move, and thus 

carry the heat. 

Well, there are then these methods in which heat is 

transmitted. They are 1st Radiation, by which we 

mean that the heat travels in straight lines called 

rays ; 2d Conduction in which the heat is conducted 

or lead^ from one particle to another, while the 

particles themselves do not move ; and 3d Convection 

or the carrying of the heat by the moving of the 

11 



82 [Lesson XXVIII. 

particles. This can only take place in liquids or gases, 

where the particles can move -fi'^ely or readily or 

easily. All repeat the three ways again. First, we 

have radiation, 2d conduction, 3d convection. 



OML TEAINING LESSON. 

NO. XXVIII. 



Astronomy — The Solar System. 



We are to continue our former lesson on The Solar 
System to-day. (See No. XXIV.) You will all require 

to give your best attention, for without this you cannot 

learn. 

The planet which is nearest to the sun is Mercury. 

This is the swiftest of the .planets, and is named after 

the messenger of the gods. Next comes Venus, 

which was called after the beautiful goddess Venus, 

because it is so beautiful. These two .planets are 

called ? Because they are at a less distance from the 

sun than the earth they are called inferior planets, 

which means that they are at an inferior distance. 

Then we find, next in order the earth, and beyond it 

are those planets that are called superior. 

I did not tell you the distance of Mercury and Venus 
from the sun ; and, indeed, it would be too much to 
remember any but that of the earth. Does any one know 
how far the earth is from the sun? It is ninety-five 

MILLIONS OF MILES. What is, Alice ? Tlie earth is 

ninety-five millions of miles distant from the sun. 

Now we will commence with the superior .planets. 



Lesson XXVIIL] 83 

The next in order after the earth is Mars. Let me 

hear this name from alL . . .Mars. This is the fourth 

planet. Robbie, will you now name all four ? Mercury, 

Venus, The Earth, Mars. Mars was named after the god 

of War. Who was the god of War, Sam? Mars was 

the god of War. And the fourth planet in order from 

the sww was named after this god. It was called... Jtfars. 

Then we find the largest of all the planets. It is 

named after the King of all the gods. The King of the 

gods was ? Let me write it. Jupiter. His name 

was Jupiter 2iX\d. this was the name of this — ..planet. 

Mars was the fourth and so Jupiter is the fifth. Allie, 

you may tell me the fourth and fifth planets The fourth 

planet is Mars and the fifth Jupiter. The last one named 
was called after.. ..tJie king of the gods, on account of its 

size. Jupiter is the largest of all the planets. 

Repeat that, Frank. (He repeats.) 

Next we find Satuen. It was named after another 

god. You will remember it when I tell you of its rings. 
(To illustrate this, place a small finger-ring inside a larger 
one, and inside the inner one a pea, or any small round 
object. The wire of the ring should be square instead of 
round. A couple of such rings cut from a potato would be 
better. First cut a flat slice, then cut two rings from it, 
one a little smaller than the other, so as not to come in 
contact with it.) It is surrounded by two solid rings of 
matter which do not touch it or each other. These are 
called Saturn's Rings. Now you may all answer ; this 

planet >Sai!Mrre is surrounded by two Ww^s, of solid 

matter, which do not touch it. They are called 

SaturrCs rings. How many did we name before 

Saturn? Five. Then it is the sixth. 1st we have 

Mercury, 2d Venus, 3d lite Earth, 4th Mars, 

5th Jupiter, and 6th Saturn, which is surrounded 

by two rings. 

The seventh is called after its discoverer. Its name is 

Herschel. The name of this planet, then, is Herschel. 

This was the name of the astronomer who discovered it. 

It also has two other names, but it would only burden your 
memories to ask you to remember them. I will, however. 



84 [Lesson XXVIII. 

state them. One is Georgium Sidus which means 
" George's Star ;" and the other is Uranus. But we will 
use the name Herschel. 

The last is also named after its discoverer. It is 

called Leverrier. It also has another name, which will 
perhaps be more easily remembered. It is also called 
Neptune. This was another god's name. It is the last 

.planet. Its name again is Neptune. Now give them 

all, pausing between each one Mercury; Venus; The 

Earth; Mars; Jupiter; Saturn; Herschel and 

Neptune. How many? Eight. George, repeat their 

names. (He does so.) Raise hands all who will do so. 
I see two whose hands are not raised. Fannie, you and 
Richard will spend a few moments with me at recess in 
writing their names till you can repeat them. 

All ma^ now answer again, as we review. Revolving 

round the Sun there are eight planets. The first 

two which are Mercury and Venus, are called 

Inferior. Next is The Earth. Outside of it are those 

that are called Superior. There are how many superior 

planets? Five. They are Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, 

Herschel and Neptune. Saturn is surrounded by two 

solid rings. These eight .planets all revolve round 

the sun. 



Lesson XXIX.] 85 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XXIX. 



Natural Science — Light — Its Nature and Sources. 



To-day our lesson is upon Light. Light is that by means 
of which we see. Again, we see by means of lAgld. 

What is Light ? Is it anything ? Do you think it has 

any weight ? Well, Annie ? I think itTnust have weight. 

Well, it is very natural to suppose so. But let us look at 
some facts. It has been discovered— I will tell you how in 
some other lesson — that the light travels at the rate of 

about twelve million miles in a minute. Well, Sam? 

IIoxo can they know that ? I said I would explain how it 

was .found out in another lesson. You must take 

my word for it now. For what, Willie ? For the fact 

that light travels at the rate of twelve million miles a minute. 
Now you all know that if the smallest kind of shot are 

thrown from a gun at the rate of perhaps two hundred 

yards in a second, they go with a great.. ...force. Do you 
think, Annie, that shot, however small, moving so rapidly, 
would do any injury to our eyes, or the delicate leaves of 
a flower .''... Yes sir, it would destroy them. Now, in the next 
place, if the particles of light have any weight whatever, 

coming at the rate of 12,000,000 mtYes a m^inute, they 

would utterly destroy our eyes or any other very deli- 
cate ? Anything that is made or constructed, either 



86 [Lesson XXIX. 

by man or God, may be called ? I will write the 

word. Stkuctuee. All answer structure. You think 

that any delicate structure such as our eyes or the 

leaves of .flowers, or the tender wings of butterflies and 

other insects would be destroyed if the particles of 

the liglit have any weight. For this and other good 

reasons philosophers believe that light has no weight. 

Does any other boy or girl remember any other body in 
nature that has no weight ? What else comes from the 

sun besides light? Heat. Yes. Light and Heat are 

both bodies that are supposed to have no weight. There 

is a word which means "having no weight " or " not able 
to be weighed." What is it? Hands up. Perhaps you 
have never heard it before. Let us place it on our black- 
board. Imponderable. Light and heat are both said to 

be imponderable, that is, they have no weight. Can 

you think of any other imponderable body ? Only three 
are known to exist. What is the other one ? What is it 
that passes so rapidly over the telegraph lines? Elec- 
tricity. That is the other one. Who will name the three ? 

Ella? Light, Heat and Electricity are the three 

imponderable bodies. Very well. 

Now I wish to ask another question. Whence do we get 

light? Hands up. Frank? Froin the Sun. Lizzie? 

From lamps. Allie ? Frotn candles. Mary ? From 

fire of every kind. Well, who can remember one word " for 
fire of every kind ?" In enumerating the sources of heat, 

we said that one source was fire or combustion. (If it 

is not answered, write it again on the board.) I only heard 

two voices give this answer. Again Combustion. We 

have now named two sources from which we get light. 

They are 1st The /S'mw and 2d Combustion. These, 

again are two sources of light. Is there any other? 

Has any one ever seen a very brilliant flash of light come 

from the sky ? When did you see it, Sam? During a 

thunder-storm. Where did it come from ? Itcamefrom 

the clouds. Yes, but what caused it? Tlie thunder. 

Well, the thunder was a sound that accompanied it. But 
do you know what caused both the thunder and the flash ? 
I will tell you. It was that third imponderable body that 



Lesson XXX.] 87 

we mentioned. Hands up those who remembor it. Charlie? 

Electricity. That is another source of light. 

Whenever electricity is discharged, and you will know 
better what I mean by this after we advance further, it 

causes a flash of light and is therefore a source of 

heat. 

Let us now rapidly revise. We conclude that light has 

no weight. It cannot be weighed. There are also 

two other bodies or substances, in Nature that 

cannot be weighed. They are heat and electricity. 

These three are therefore called the three imponderable 

bodies. The imponderable bodies again are 1st Light, 

2d Heat, and 3d Electricity. Light is derived 

from three sources. 1st The Sun, 2di Combus- 
tion, and 3d Electricity. I may state that combustion 

is only one form of chemical action, and that other kinds 
of chemical action produce light. 



ORAL TRAmiNG LESSON. 

NO. XXX. 



Natural Science — Sound. 



You formerly told me in one of our lessons (See No. 
VIII.) that we become acquainted with what surrounds us 

by means of what we called the five senses. These are 

Ist Seeing, 2d ITearing, 3d Feeling, 4th Smell- 
ing , 2indL bih. Tasting. The second sense which is 

hearing, is the one by which we perceive sounds. 

Again, sounds are .perceived by the sense of hearing. 



88 [Lesson XXX. 

Now I wish to ask you what else is necessary in order to 
hear besides the ears ? Well, you can better answer after 
our lesson is over. 

When I strike this desTc, (or whatever you strike, 

suiting the action to the word,) you hear a sound ; and 

when a bell rings you also hear a sound. Now what is 

sound ? It is not many years ago since people imagined 
that whenever a bell was rung, small particles of metal 

were struck off and flew rapidly and entered the ear., 

(pointing to the ear,) thus causing what v;e call a sound. 

But there were a great many objections to this theory. It 
could not be explained how the sound was made when the 
wind whistled round a corner. And it was soon proved 
•that sound was caused in quite a different way. 

We proved not long ago (See No. IX.) that air really is 

a substance, since it weighs something or, in other 

words has weight. I wish to have you remember this 

as we will refer again to it in a few moments. Has any 
boy or girl ever seen a child place the blade of a knife in 
a crack in the table and then strike the handle, and cause 

it to make a rattling sound ? Well, Eddie? I had my 

ears " boxed " for doing it once. Well, you all know what 
I mean. The knife-handle flies backwards and .for- 
wards very rapidly. I now want a word which means 

to go back and forth in that manner. How many know of 

such a word? Mary? Shiver. Ella? Tremble. 

Frank? Rattle. Frank, if you stretch a string tight 

and cause it to do so, would you say it rattled ? No sir. 

No, but it would tremble or ? What other word do 

you know besides tremble, shake and shiver ? I will write 
the word I want. Vibrate. All pronounce it together 

Vibrate. The blow you strike causes the knife to 

vibrate or move very rapidly, back and forth. And 

you remember that you have just said that the air is a real 

substance. Now if the desk moves or vibrates, it 

strikes every time against ? What surrounds it every- 
where? Air. Well, it would strike then against 

the air, and this would cause the air also to vibrate. 

Let us see whether we can find a good way to represent 
this vibration of the air. Has any one ever seen a stone 



Lesson XXX.] 89 

dropped into smooth water? Sam? I have often throvm. 

them in. Well did you ever notice, Sam, what happened 

to the surface of the water when the stone dropped? 

Yes, sir ; the stone made small waves on the surface of the 

water. Who will repeat that? Fred ? A stone dropped 

in a pond of ivater causes small waves on the surface of the 
water. And these waves roll on till they reach the edge 

of the water. Well, I will tell you that those waves 

on the water are just like the little waves that are 

caused in the air when anything vibrates. And 

when they enter our ears, they cause us to hear a 

sound, by operating on the nerves of our.... ears. 

If I strike a great rock, how does it sound ? Would it 

sound as plainly as when I strike this box? No sir. 

Why? Who can answer this? All ought if all were 

listening. Well, George ? It does not vibrate so much, 

being so solid, and therefore it does not cause so many'waves 
in the air, and consequently we cannot hear it as plainly. 

If I strike a sheet of tin or iron, this causes much noise. 

Why? Allie? Because it vibrates so easily and causes 

so yrtany waves in the air. 

These waves roll off in every direction. It some- 
times happens that the sound-waves strike against the side 
of a large building, a high bank or bluff, or the edge of 
the woods. When this happens what do you think 

becomes of the waves? Did you ever hear an echo? 

Yes sir. What is an echo ? Kate? It is a sound heard 

after another, without any apparent cause. Now from what 
we have said can you not guess what becomes of the sound- 
waves, when they strike the side of a building ? Henry ? 

They come rolling bach to our ears again. Very 

good ; and you think this is what causes an echo. Raise 

hands all who can now tell me what causes an echo ? Eva ? 

An echo is caused by the sound-waves rolling back 

after striTcing some large object. 

Before our lesson closes I want another word for waves. 
The one I want comes from the Latin word Unda, a wave. 

It is UNDULATIONS. The waves on the surface of water 

might be called undulations. What is meant when 

12 



90 [Lesson XXXI. 

men speak of an undulating country or an undulating 

prairie ? George ? Tliey Tnean that it is waving or not 

perfectly level ; or has hills and hollows. And these waves 

in the air are called undulations. I want all to 

remember this word till we have the next lesson on Light, 
as we will then use it again. 

Sounds are produced in the air. When anything is 

caused to shake rapidly or vibrate, since it moves 

against the air, it causes it also to vibrate. When 

it vibrates it contains a great many small waves ^nch. 

as we see on the surface of wa^er when we throw in 

a stone. These waves entering the ear, affect a 

nerve which causes us to hear a sound. The sound, 

then, is simply the vibrating of the air. When these 

waves strike against a large object like a housethey 

roll ^acZ; and cause an echo. Instead of waves we 

use another word which is undulations. 



ORAL THAmmG LESSON. 

NO. XXXL 



Etymology — Derivation — Words from Plico. 



We are to have another exercise to-day in examining the 
process by which English words are derived from the 
Latin language. 

In one of our lessons on this subject (See No. XIII.) we 
said that a Latin word from which we derive words is 

called a root. The root that we will select for to-day 

is Plico, Plicatum ; to fold. The words will all contain 



Lesson XXXL] 91 

either " pli," " ply," or " plicate," and will all have some 
allusion to folding. 

Those who can give me a word may raise hands. Well, 

Minnie? Multvply. That is a good word. Multus 

means many; and since ply means to fold to multiply 

'will mean to fold many times. Thus twelve has, as it 

were, four folded three times; and seventy-five has 

twenty-five .folded three tmies ; very much in the same 

way that cloth is .folded. This process is called 

multiplication. This is another word. 

Now I will ask again. Fred? Reply. Very well. 

The syllable Re (See No. XIII.) means bach; to reply 

then means to .fold hack. It is applied to conversation. 

The first person makes a statement, and the other 

replies, or folds his statement back upon his neighbor's ; he 

in his turn makes another reply or .fold, and thus it is 

folded over and over again, by their continual replies. 

Will some one give us another word? Raise hands all 

who can. Genie? Pliable. That is a good example. 

You would say that cloth, or paper, or leather is .pliable, 

or able to be .folded. 

We are ready for more words. Frank ? Complicated. 

Yes. Con means together, and therefore complicated 

will mean ? If "plicated" means folded and con, 

together, what will be meant by complicated ? Folded 

together. Thus when we look at a locomotive or a watch, 

we call it a very complicated piece of mechanism, 

because it appears to be so much folded together. When 

a question in Arithmetic or Algebra is composed of a great 

many parts, it is also said to be complicated or 

folded together. 

Now you may raise hands for others. Give yours, Ella 

iTnply. Right. And since Im means IN and ply, to 

fold, to imply will be to fold in. If I say " The second 

house that was burned contained much furniture," you 
instantly conclude, although I did not state it, that another 
.,,... hotcse had been burned before it. And you are said to 
imply this ; that is, you fold this idea in with the other. 

What is your word, George? Implicated. When a 

man is guilty of a crime and it is proved that some other 



92 [Lesson XXXI. 

person was also guilty with, him, the second would be said 
to be implicated. People become implicated in crime. 

We would now like to hear others. What word have 

you, Charlie? Triple. Tri 'means three, and so 

triple means having three folds. The word which 

means having two folds is double, and the word ample 

means with many .folds. 

Mary, what is your example? ExpliciL When any- 
thing is well explained or unfolded, it is said to be 

explicit. Ex means out and explicit, then, simply 

means .folded out. And so, you might easily conclude, 

implicit would mean .folded in; yes, as when we speak 

of implicit confidence. 

Did you ever hear of a word which means " without any 
folds," or " having no folds ?'' I will write it under our 
other words ; you will wonder when you see how simple a 
word it is. It is Simple. Sine means without ; it is 
changed to sim for convenience. The word means, again, 

without folds. A lever is a contrivance that is 

exceedingly simple ; much simpler than a steam engine. 

In the Bible, simplicity is used for innocence — no folds of 
guilt. But when we say a person is simple, we mean that 
his mind has few .folds, or is undeveloped. 

(Now retrace the lesHon and repeat the definitions, 
calling on each one for a full statement. Have all the 
words on the board.) 



Lesson XXXII.] 



ORAL TRAmiNG LESSON. 

NO. XXXII. 



Difference Bet-ween Science and Art. 



We have now had a number of lessons upon different 

subjects. This morning T wish to tell you of something 

useful in connection with these subjects. I wish to see 
every one sitting upright so as to be able to attend. 

You remember our lesson u])on the Solar System. We 

named eight bodies that revolve round the sun, and 

called them .planets. Now, that branch of knowledge 

which describes or relates to these things, and to all the 
heavenly bodies, and their motions or distances, &c., is 

called ? Do you not know what it is called ? It is 

Astronomy. And Astronomy is called ? This word 

that we want supplied here is the principal word of our 
lesson to-day. Perhaps some of you have seen it before. 

If 60 you will at once recognize it when you see it. It 

is derived from the Latin verb Scio, I know, and it means 

all that we can know about anything. George? 7s it 

Science ? Yes, that is the word. Let us write it on the 

board. Science. Astronomy is called a science. What 

does a science mean ? If you look at the board you see 

that Scio means I hnow; then science will probably 

mean that which we Icnow. Then you may tell me, 

Alfred, what a science is It is something that we Tcnow. 



94 [Lesson XXXII. 

What we know about the stars is the science of Astron- 
omy/. Perhaps you would like to know how this word 
astronomy was formed. I will show you. The Greek 
word AsTKON means a star ; and nomos, which is also a 

Greek word, means a law. So Astronomy will mean 

literally, the laws which govern the stars. And I have 

just told you that all we know of the heavenly bodies 

is included in the science of Astronomy. 

Will any one in the room now tell me of another science ? 

Bessie? Geology. Yes, this is another science, \h.e 

science of Geology. It teaches us abouc the rocks, &c., 

which form the crust of the earth. 

Any other? Wallace? ArithTnetic. Very good. 

This means the science q/" wwwiJers, or, that which we 

hioio about numbers. 

Now I will proceed to the second part of our lesson. 
After we study a science sufficiently, we then begin to do 
the things which it teaches us, or, to do things depend- 
ing on what it teaches us. What word, now, is used to 

indicate anything that we do instead of anything that we 
KNOW ? Let me write it. Anything that we do is called 

an Art. Thus, we speak of the Art of making cloth, 

(touching a piece of cloth.) Or, the Art of making 

glass, (pointing to the window.) Now, Arithmetic besides 

being a science is also an art, for it is a way of doing 

something. Can any one give me any other art ? George ? 

The art of printing. Very good; that is an art. 

Any other? Alice? The art of teaching. Very well. 

Now I will allow all to raise hands to give me examples 

of both Arts and Sciences. Kate ? Building houses or 

Architecture is a Science and an Art. Edward ? MaJcing 

boots and shoes is an Art. Is it a science also, Edward? 

No sir. Jennie ? Physiology is a Science, is it not ? 

Yes; we have had several lessons in the science of 

Physiology. (See No. IV.) Physiology teaches us 

not of the organs of our bodies but of their .func- 
tions; or that which they do. 

Now I want others. Hands up. Frank? Is Gram- 
mar a Science or an Art ? Who can tell him this ? Emma ? 
It is a Science, Fred ? It is an Art, I think. 



Lesson XXXIIL] 95 

Well, you are both correct. Like Arithmetic, it is both a 

Science and an Art. "What other Science did I tell 

you of when I spoke of Physiology ? That which tells us 

of the organs themselves is Anatomy. Only three 

answered then. Well, after seeing the word several times, 
like a new face, it will become familiar to you ; that is, 
you will then know it. Anatomy then, is a Science. 

Did you ever hear of the science of Music ? Yes sir. 

Is it not also an Art ? Do we not do something ? I will 
tell you. The art is called Singing, but the science is 

Music. Repeat that, Ella The science is called music, 

and the art, singing. 

Then a science is that which we know about anything ; 

while an Art is that which we do, that depends on 

the science. 



OML TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XXXIIL 



Natviral Science — Mechanical Properties of the 
Atmosphere. 



Every eye must be directed this way ; then I wish 

also to see each one sitting upright. This is the best 

position in which we can sit if we wish to give good 

attention, and receive the full benefit of the lesson. 

In a former lesson (See No. VI. and IX.) we spoke of 

the properties of the air. One was its weight (making 

a gesture with the hand as though holding a heavy weight.) 
Raise hands all who can tell me its weight. George? 



96 [Lesson XXXIII. 

A column of air extending from the eartli's surface to the 
top of the ahnospliere, one inch square, weighs fifteen pounds. 

That is very well stated. And on accountof its weight 

it exerts a great .pressure on the eartli's surface. 

This is the second property of air. Although weight and 
pressure are the same, we will speak of the pressure as a 

separate property. You will learn why afterwards. 

Who will now give the two properties of the air that we 

have mentioned? Alice? The first property was its 

weight, and the second its pressure. 

We will now look at some others. Of what color is the 

air? Raise hands. Fannie? White. White like snow ? 

No sir. Well, what color then? Is it yellow? 

No sir. Of what color are clouds ? The prevailing color 

is gif^y- Is the air of the same color.'' No sir. 

No, for then we could not distinguish a cloud from the 

air. Has air any color ? No sir ; then you would say, 

if it has no color, that it is colorless. And anything 

like the air, that we cannot see, having no color is 

said to be ? In the night we cannot see the sun. 

Then the sun is not visible, so it is invisible. And 

air is also, then invisible. I will write this word. 

Visible would mean able to be seen, hut when we say 

that anything is invisible Vfe mea.n it is not able to 

be seen. We will call this property Invisibility. The 
1st was weight, the 2d..... pressure, and Sd.... invisibility. 

We now come to another property. Does any one 
remember the first effect of heat that we mentioned ? (See 
No. V.) Edward ?....^.Ji! causes substances to expand or 
become larger. Air has this property. It becomes greatly 

increased in bulk when heated. That is, it expands. 

Air will expand when it is heated. What will you 

call this property of air? We call it Expansibility. 

This means its power of expanditig. The first property 

Kate ? Weight ; the second, Willie ? Pressure ; the 

third, Ella? Invisibility; and the fourth, Richard? 

Expansibility. 

Now we may search for other properties. Have you 

ever seen a pop-gun ? I have. (Always cause them to 

raise hands in any such case, and not answer promiscuously. 



Lesson XXXIII.] 97 

But for the general ellipsis, require all to answer simul- 
taneously.) How is it discharged? Eddie? A pellet 

'is fastened m one end and another driven through the tube, 
to force it out. And does the second pellet press against 

the first one, Eddie? I do not know, sir. Who knows? 

Frank? JVo sir, it does not. Well, Frank, what forces 

pillet No. 1 out? I will tell you. When pellet No. 2 is 

put in, there is between the two a quantity of air. 

And when we force pellet No. 2 through the tube, this air 

is greatly ? Cannot some one tell me what happens to 

it? It is greatly squeezed, or ? I gave you a 

better word than this, (See No. VI.) Who remembers it ? 

It means " pressed together." George ? Compressed. 

That is it. The air between the two pellets become 

greatly compressed, and at last forces the first one 

out. And since air can be compressed we say it 

possesses Compressibility. This is the fifth .property. 

We will repeat them all again. 1st weight, 2d 

pressure, 3d invisibility, 4th expansibility, and 5th 

compressibility. 

There is still one other property that we will mention. 
You have often seen india-rubber. What is there remark- 
able about it ? Charlie ? It is very elastic. Very good. 

You mean by that that it can regain its former shape, 

or .position. Now I will tell you that the air is far 

more elastic than india-rubber ! When it is compressed in 
the pop-gun, it at last, in attempting to regain its former 

.position , forces out the .pellet. This property of air 

is called Elasticity. 

Now for a rapid recapitulation. The first of the mechan- 
ical .properties of air is its weight; 2d its 

pressure; 3d its invisibility ; 4th its expansibility ; 

5th. its compressibility^ and 6th its elasticity. 



13 



98 [Lesson XXXIV. 



ORAL TEAINING LESSON. 

NO. XXXIV. 



Luxuries and Necessaries of Life. 



When we commence it is always pleasant to see every 

eye directed towards your teacher, by which I know 

that all are giving their best attention. 

In order to live we daily use a great many things both 
in our food and our clothing, and otherwise, which we 
could do almost as well without. Sometimes, for example, 

a ring is worn on the .finger, ox candy or sweetmeats 

are eaten. But if we were altogether deprived of these 

things, we could probably live just as well, and be 

equally comfortable. 

Now will any boy or girl tell me a name that is given to 
all such articles? Things that we could just as conven- 
iently do without are called ? Look this way as I 

write it on the blackboard. Luxuries. They are called 

luxuries. What are luxuries? Mary? Luxuries are 

things that we could do without. Eaise hands all who will 
repeat it ? Harry ? (He repeats.) 

Who can now give me an example of a luxury ? George ? 

Tobacco is a luxury. Good. You mean by that we 

could live just as well, perhaps better, if it were not 

used. But there are people who are foolish enough to 

believe that it is a great accomplishment to smoke 



Lesson XXXIV.] 99 

tobacco. They always have cigars or pipes in their 

mouths. But this is very foolish. A great many people 

ruin their health by its wse, and then it does nobody 

any good. But it is still considered a luxury. And 

it is a very expensive luxury. 

Now I want you to think of other luxuries. You may 

give your example, Kate IVine. \ ery good. "Wine is 

another luxury. You mean by that, Kate, that we 

could get along very well without it. Like the last 

instance, it is often very injurious, much more 

frequently than it is good, or beneficial. Wine 

and all other kinds of liquor may be called luxu- 
ries. They are also useless and expensive luxuries. 

I think you all know the meaning of this word now. 
Let us go a step further with our lesson. Although there 

are things daily used that are not required, there are 

yet others that we must have, without which we could not 

live. Bread is one of these things. It is the most 

important article of our .food. We could not get along 

comfortably without bread. It is, therefore, not a 

luxury, but a ? There is another word that is the 

opposite of luxury. What is it ? I will also write it beside 
the other. But before I do so I think you can tell me it if 
you try. Can you read in a book that you have never 

seen, with your eyes shut ? iVo sir. You would have 

to open your eyes in order to read. Or, to state it 

differently, it would be necessary to open your eyes. 

That is the word. I thought you could tell me. Bread, 

then, is a necessary. It is one of the necessaries 

of life. 

Now I would like to have you give me other examples 

of necessaries. Hands up. Hattie ? WarTn clothing 

in winter is necessary. That is a very fine example. Yet 
we often see poor people who are almost without this which 

we find so necessary. And in some countries more than 

half of the people are deprived of some of the necessaries 

of life. We should be thankful that our wants are so 

well supp lied, or .provided for. 

Can you think of others? Frank? A warm fire is 

necessary in wviter. Is it not necessary in summer also ? 



100 [Lesson XXXV. 

How should we cook our food ? Yes sir, fire is always 

necessary. 

There are some things that were once luxuries that 
have now become necessaries. Can you mention one ? 

Lizzie? Tea. That is correct. Once, in Europe, tea 

was unknown. When it was first brought from Japan and 

China, it was agreat luxury. This was before the 

discovery of America. Now, it has become a necessary 

of life. We could not do quite as well without tea 

and coffee. Sugar is another example. 

(Now ask for as many examples of luxuries and neces- 
saries as time will admit of. Such as paper, milk, pianos, 
lamps, schools, newspapers, carpets, silver plate, pictures &c.) 

Let us complete our lesson. Those things that we 

cannot do without are called necessa/ries of life, but 

those that are not absolutely necessary to our comfort 

are luxuries. Thus bread is necessary, while 

preserves would be a luxury. 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON 

NO. XXXV. 



Natural History — The Camel. 



Our lesson to-day is about the habits, structure and uses 
of The Camel. Let your answers be given promptly. 

You all know what animals we use in this country as 
beasts of burden. Eaise hands all who can tell me any of 
them. (Ask all who have their hands raised and dispose 
of their answers. The horse, mule, ass, and ox should 
be given.) 



Lesson XXXV.] 101 

These animals are all used lor carrying burdens or 

loads. But we do not, here, use the animal that we 

are to describe .to-day, that is the camel. It is used 

principally in the countries of the Eastern Continent which 

contain hot, dry, sandy deserts like this country Arabia. 

(Point to it on the map.) Eepeat that Charlie. (He does 

so.) We will see how it is that this animal the camel 

is so well .fitted or adapted (See No. 11.) to those 

countries which contain hot, sandy deserts. 

These deserts, as at the isthmus of Suez (point it out 

on the map) are sometimes hundreds of miles in extent, 

with nothing green to be seen._ In these vast deserts, 

where there is no water, the horse or ox could not live. 

They would die of thirst, for men often travel there for 

weeks without meeting a single stream of water, and it 

would be impossible to carry enough water for oxen or 

horses. People there use camels which are exactly 

adapted to these dry, arid deserts. 

I must first inform you that the camel has seven 
STOMACHS. Annie, repeat this. (She does so.) The 

stomach is the place where the food is digested. Now, 

one of these seven — stomachs of the camel is exclusively 

devoted to the purpose of containing water. When it fills 

this stomach with water, it has the power of using 

it only as it is absolutely required. It can travel for weeks 

across the hot sands of the c^eser^, without feeling any 

inconvenience on account of thirst. The men have to 

carry along their supply of wafer, hnt the camel 

drinks its supply before they commence their .journey. 

It has even happened that travelers have been out on the 

hot burning deserts so long that all their supply of 

li'ttifer has become exhausted ov used up ; and then 

they have been compelled to kill a camel and use the 

water which they thus...... oitomef? from the camel's 

stomach. But they prefer to go thirsty for several days 

before they consent to kill so useful and kind an 

animal as the camel. 

This is one reason why the camel is so well adapted 

to life on a desert. Can you give me any other ? Hands 

up. Well, I will ask a question. Would the feet the horse- 



102 [Lesson XXXV. 

has suit for the camel ?....-.. iVb sir. No ; they would crack 

and become sore and uncomfortable on the hot burning 

sand oi the desert. The camel must have a different 

kind of .foot. How many have ever seen a camel? I 

see nearly all hands up. You have probably seen one with 
a circus, or in a menagerie. What kind of a foot has the 

camel? Dan? It has a foot Ulce — I cant tell. Well, 

its foot consists of an immense pad. This is the best name 
that I can think of. It is a mass of soft flesh, which is the 

best foot that could be contrived for walking over 

liot sand. 

The body of the camel, too, is sparingly covered with 
hair. Have you ever seen camel's hair ? I see by your 
hands that you have ; it is soft and silky in appearance, 

and is very valuable. If its coat of AazV was heavy 

it would be too warm. As it is, it is just right. 

The camel also serves the purpose of a cow. It gives 

milk, which is often almost the only food, with dates, 

of the inhabitants of these deserts. 

When a burden is placed on the back of the camel, 

the animal is caused to kneel. At a certain signal, gener- 
ally a whistle, from its master, the camel at once 

kneels down. Could it kneel up ? JVo sir. Then simply 

say that it hieels. (The kneeling of the camel to 

receive the burden is a most beautiful instance of the 
difference between mere teaching and training.) While 

it is quite young its keeper trains it to kneel. He 

does not merely teach it, or show it how, but actually 

makes it do the thing required. This is true training. 

And so the camel always does this when required. We 
said, when speaking of the Cat, that a way of doing any- 
thing is a habit/ the camel then forms this habit 

and is always ready to kneel, at the signal of its 

keeper, to receive its burden. How nicely God, in His 

wisdom has provided for the wants of the wanderers of 
the deserts. 

(Now rapidly review, as in other lessons.) 



Lesson XXXVI.] 103 



OIUL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XXXVI. 



Nattiral Science — "Why do Iron SMps Float? 



Now as soou as there is perfect silence we will com- 

vience. All must give their best attention. We are 

to have a lesson to-day that every boy will be interested 
iu. The subject is Why do Iron Vessels Float ? 

Who can tell me why ? Well we are about to investi- 
gate the matter. When a piece of word is thrown upon 

the water, it does not sink but .floats. Why? Let us 

inquire a little further. If I hold out this piece of 

chalk, and let go my grasp, it falls to the floor. 

Why? I see several hands up. George? Because the 

earth draws it down or attracts it. And if I hold a 

pail, full of water, a little inclined, the water also runs 

down to the ground because the €a7'th attracts it. 

Or, a piece of wood would be drawn to the earth or 

attracted in the very same tvay. 

If I have a ball of lead, and a ball of pine wood of the 

same size, which is the heavier of the two? Frank? 

The lead; and if I place them on the extremities of a 

balance, which will outweigh the other? The lead. 

And consequently it will arrange itself nearer to the 

earth, as it is attracted more strongly than the ivood. 

Now let us go back to our former question. When we 



104 [Lesson XXXVI. 

throw a piece of loood upon the water, which do 

you suppose will get nearer the ground, the wood or the 

water ? Alice ? The water will get nearer to the ground 

because it is the heavier. Now let me ask a question of the 
whole school. Raise hands all who can tell me. Is a 
pound of water any heavier than a pound of wood ? I 

will wait for you all to think of this. Well, Sam? 

JVo sir, it is not; they both weigh a -pound. Well 

why, then should a pound of wood thrown on about twenty 
pounds of water in a pail, float? I will tell you. When 

the wood is thrown upon the water it sinks just a short 

distance into the water, and consequently it drives 

so much water out of its .place, as is equal to the 

quantity of wood immersed in the...... water. As I wish 

you all to clearly understand this we will invert the sen- 
tence and repeat it. When part of the wood sinks into 

the water, there cannot be any water in the space 

occupied by the wood; or, the water that formerly 

occupied this space before we threw in thewood'hs^B 

been put out of its .place. Raise hands those who do 

not yet fully understand this statement. (If any, transpose 
and repeat till all see what you mean.) Now can't we 
get a better word for " drives out of its place." You say 

that the wood drives or puts the water oid of its place, 

or it ? What prefix means APART or asunder? (See 

No. XIII.) Ella? Dis means apart. Well, raise hands 

those who can tell what word will mean " to place apart?" 

Fred? Displace. Well done. Displace means to 

drive out of place or simply, if place means to place and 

dis means apart, displace will mean to .place apoirt. 

Then you would say that the wood displaces the water; 

that is, it drives it out of its place. 

Well I will tell you that if the wood, when sunk com- 
pletely into the water, displaces a quantity of water greater 
than its own weight, it will float. Edward repeat that. 

Jf the wood, when sunk completely into the water, 

displaces a quantity of water heavier than itself, it toill float. 
Very v;elL And therefore if we put a cannon ball into 

water, since it displaces a quantity of water that is 

lighter than the hall, the water in this case will float and 



I 



Lesson XXXV IL] 105 

the ball will sink or go nearer to the earth. But 

if the cannon-ball had first been beaten out .flat, and 

then formed into a large iron pan that would hold a great 

deal of water ; yes, I know it would hold water, but if 

there were no water in it, it would then contain air ; I 

repeat, if it were beaten out in that way so as to contain 

air, the weight of the iron pan and air together, 

would be less than the water that would be displaced, 

and then the iron would not sink, but .float. 

Now who can tell why an iron ship floats? George? 

The weigJit of the iron of the ship, with the air inside 

of it, is not so great as the water it would displace if put 
under the surface, and therefore it floats. That is to say, it 

will only displace as much water as is equal to its own 

weight. But if we were to load an iron vessel full of 

shot, you think that then it would sinTc. 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XXXVII. 



Astronomy — Attraction of Gravitation. 



It always pleases me to see every one sitting in such a 
....'. .position that the best attention can be given. 

You could not lift a ton of iron in your hand. It would 

be too heavy. What makes it heavy? Hands up. 

Frank ? Its loeight, I suppose, makes it heavy. And do 

you not know better, Frank, than to make such a reply as 
that ? You might as well say that birds fly because they 
14 



106 [Lesson XXXVII. 

fly. It must certainly have required great mental exertion 
to conceive such an answer. James, what do you think ? 

I think it is heavy because the earth attracts it. That 

is very well answered. We have several times used this 

word attract. It means (See No. XIII) to chaw to. 

In which direction does the earth draw it? It draws it 

downwards. Now let us think carefully. If an immensely 

dee]) well were dug extending downwards io the earth's 

centre, and far beyond it to the opposite side of the 

earth, Kwdi a cannon ball or any other object, were 

dropped in, how far do you think it would fall ? Hands 

up. Eva? It would fall right through. Now, be 

careful how you answer. George ?. Ithinkit would not 

fall through completely. Well, let us see which answer is 
correct. I will allow the school to decide. What causes 

it to fall in the first place? Alice? The earth attracts 

it. Well, and when it has gone one-third of the distance 
through, there would be a great quantity of earth above 
it which would begin to draw or attract it in the oppo- 
site direction; and on arriving near the centre there 

would be just as much attraction drawing it upwards 

as there would be to draw it doionwards. (Make 

suitable gestures with the hand, indicating the direction. 
These gestures greatly assist in securing their attention.) 
And you could naturally think, as George did, that it 

would only go half way through. This is correct. Its 

force might cause it to descend a little more than half 

tyay, but it would soon stop and come. .. .Wjoz^art/s, and 
would probably oscillate as an evenly balanced scales 
would, and at last remain as near as possible to the centre 

of the earth. 

I will now ask another question. Suppose that a man 

living upon the other side of the earth were to drop 

another ball at that end into the opening, what do you 

think would become of it ? I see a large number of hands 

up now. Sarah? It would fall upwards into the hole. 

Very good. That is to say, it would be upwards to us, but 

the person who dropped it would call it downwards. 

Downwards, then, means towards the earth's center and 

upwards .from the centre. 



Les3on XXXVIL] 107 

This attraction, you say, it is that causes anything to 

possess weight. Now, I will tell you that the word 

that is used to represent this attraction is derived from the 
Latin language, as many other words in English are. The 
Latin word Gravitas means weight ; and because this 

attraction of the earth causes weight, it is called 

the attraction of gravitation. Eepeat that, Harry 

The attraction of the earth, because it causes weight, is 
called the attraction of gravitation. 

In speaking of the solar system we stated that the earth 

itself is attracted by the sun, and that the sun attracts 

also all the other .planets. The attraction of the sun, 

then, is also the attraction of gravitation. 

Now, what is the shape of laindrops, or dewdrops, or 

tears? Hands up. "Willie? Bound. Round like a 

cent ? No sir. round like a ball, or globular. "Why ? 

Do you not see that the particles of the dewdropall attract 
each other ? Do you think it would, then, become square ? 

No sir. No, the form in which all the particles would 

be nearest to the centre would be that of a ball, or 

globe. (Illustrate this with a square and also a circular 
figure on the black-board.) If you imagine the drop to be 

composed of layers one on another, all the particles in 

each layer would be equally distant from the centre 

in the round form, but this would not be so if it were 

square. A mass of fluid, then, such as a raindop, a dew- 
drop, or a tear will, if left alone, become round 

like a ball. 

Well, it is supposed that our earth, which looks so solid, 
was once a melted mass. In that condition what would 

you have imagined its shape to have been ? Hound, like 

a dewdrop. "Very good. It would become round on 

account of this attraction which I have called the 

attraction of gravitation. And we know, and can prove, 
that this actually is its shape. 

Now, we will revise, and I will give you a very beauti- 
ful selection from one of the poets, that you will alv/ays be 
able to remember, that very nicely embodies all that we 
have said. 

Anything on its surface is attracted by the earth. 



108 [Lesson XXXVIII. 

This attraction is called the attraction of gravitation, 

from the Latin word gravitas which means weight, 

because it is this that causes bodies to have weight. 

The attraction which the sun possesses towards the 

earth and the other planets, is also a form of the 

attraction of gravitation. And dewdrops assume a round 

shape in consequence of the same attraction. It is 

sometimes called the Law oj Gravitation. 

Here is the stanza. I will write it on the black-board, 
and wish you all to copy it into your note-books : 

That very law which moulds a tear, 
And bids it trickle from its source. 

That law preserves the earth a sphere, 
And guides the planets in their course. 

(Cause them to repeat this stanza in concert several times.) 



ORAL TRAmmG LESSON. 

NO. XXXVIII. 



Chemistry — Simple and Compound Bodies. 



Our attention is to be given to-day, to a subject of great 
importance. (Do not state it till after the lesson is over.) 

In order to receive the greatest benefit possible from a 

lesson it is necessary to keep our thoughts about us and 

answer promptly. Then all sit upright and look 

this way. 

When you pick up a piece of glass, another of coal, still 
another of limestone, and also another of iron, they do not 
all appear to be exactly the same or alike, but are, 



Lesson XXXVIIL] 109 

in appearance, all very diffen-ent. All such things we 

include under one general name, (See No. X.) which is 

matter. Now, the first question which I have to ask you is : 
Do you consider that the iron, or the limestone, if examined, 
would be found to be each made up of a great many differ- 
ent kinds of substances blended, or mixed together, or of 

only one kind? Well, Annie? I think that liraestone is 

■made only of one kind of matter, if it is pure, and so 4 
iron. Well, T will not now state whether that is correct 
or not, but will ask another question. If you examine a 
piece of soap, as pure as you can get it, do you think you 

would find that it consists of only one substance? JVo 

sir. It is made of grease and soda or potash, and other 
things., often containing lime and water. But could you 
tell this by merely picking it up, cutting it, and otherwise 

examining its outward appearance? JVo sir. But you 

know how soap is made, and therefore you also know 

that it has in it more than one kind of viatte^-. 

Now when you fiee a piece of pure white marble, can 
you tell me whether it is only one, or several kinds of 

matter? Emma? Only one. Fred? Severalkinds. 

Well, how do you know ? I do not wish answers to be 
given which are mere guesses, I wish you to think for 
yourselves and reason, and draw correct conclusions. If 
you break the marble, which is pure limestone, or rub it, 
or scrape it, or examine it in any such way, so as to only 
investigate its outside properties, if you even find its 
weight, or look at its color, there is nothing to tell us 

whether it is just one kind of matter or whether it 

contains several kinds. 

Or if we take coal, and examine it in the same 

mantier we cannot tell how many kinds of matter it 

contains. Well, how are we to tell? Let us see. 

(Procure a small glass tube. Have one end open and the 
other closed. Get some small pieces of nice clean white 
wood. Place them in the tube and hold it in the flame of 
a spirit lamp, so as to strongly heat the wood. It very 
soon decomposes. The lamp may be made by perforating 
a cork, passing a brass, iron, or tin tube through it, and 
fitting the cork into a small phial with a large mouth. 



no [Lesson XXXVIII. 

Have a wick, of course, and burn alcohol in it.) The 

wood that I have placed in this tube now begins to 

become quite hlaclc. If we had examined it by merely 

handling it, we never could have found out what composed 

it. But when we apply heat to it, we soon know that 

that the wood is made up or composed of a number of 

different kinds of matter. You see around the sides of 

the tube a substance like tar (if you use pine wood) and 

the solid black substance at the end of the tube is ? 

It is CHARCOAL. This is the way in which charcoal is 

'made. Wood is covered over with earth, to keep away 
the air, and then heated. The heat soon separates it into 

different kinds of matter. Well, can you give me one 

word for separating into parts? When you separate a 

sentence into its .parts, ov take apart and explain a 

process in Arithmetic, you are said to analyze it. That 

is just the word I wanted. I think you can all remember 

it. The wood becomes analyzed. And this process is 

called Analxsis. The wood is analyzed by the heat. 

Now the science which teaches us about the analysis of 

different substances, and shows us of what they are 

composed is called Chemistey. Let me hear this word 

from alL Chemistry. And chemistry teaches us that all 

substances are not composed of one single kind of 

matter • many are made of several Icinds, just as we 

found that this wood is. I will now tell you that all 

those substances which are known to be made up or 

composed of only one kind of matter are called Simple 

Bodies. And those, like wood, which contain more than 

one kind of matter are called Compound Bodies. 

Then will wood be simple or compound ? Hands up. 

Ella? Wood is compound. And can you tell me what 

water is? John ? Water is simpU. Why do you think 

so, John ? Because heat does not analyze it; it only 

changes it into vapor, xolucli can be converted back again to 
wateo\ That looks like a good reason, John, but I ant 
sorry to have to contradict you. That answer, however, 
convinces me that John had thought carefully of what he 
said. I would give ten times as much for an inde- 
pendent answer like that with a reason for it, than a 



Lesson XXXVIII.] Ill 

thouglitless careless answer with no reason. I will tell you, 
John, that there are other ways of analyzing besides by 
heat. We will speak of them in a future lesson. Water 
is found to consist of two gases. I will also describe them 
in a future lesson. One of them is Oxygen, of which we 

have already spoken. It is the principal gas in the 

air. Iron is found to be simple, thit is, it is only one 

kind of matter. What do you think of coal? George? 

It is compound ; for it contains more than one hind of 

matter. There are the ashes, and other substances that are 
burned out of it. Very well ; that is another excellent 
answer, accompanied with a good reason. Always have a 

reason for what you say. 

Some bodies, then, like iron, are simple/ and others, 

such as wood, are compound. They are simple when 

they contain onli/ one kind of matter ; compound if 

they contain several kinds. When we find this out, as with 

heat, we analyze them. The science which treats of 

analysis is Chemistry. « 



112 [Lesson XXXIX. 



ORAL TMINING LESSON. 

NO. XXXIX. 



Natural Science — Inertia. 



Now, all look this. |.... way and be ready to answer. 

Iron, rock, sand, water and all other things that we find 

around us, may be called by one name, which is matter. 

(See No. X.) And matter has a great many curious 
properties, as thy are called. For instance, the earth 

attracts all objects on its swr/rtce towards it, and thus 

causes them to have weight. Weight, then, is one of 

the properties of matter. Or a better name is the other 

word. What causes weight? Attraction of Gravitation, 

(See No. XXXVII.) Attraction, we say, is a .property 

of matter. Well, we will to-day speak of some other 
properties that it possesses. 

You all see this book lie open upon my desk. Has it 

any power to move ? JVo sir. You think it cannot put 

itself in motion, or it is unable to move. Can any 

one think of a word that means unable to move? 
I will give you one. Inert. Anything that is inert is 

unable to move. Lizzie, repeat that Anything that 

is inert is unable to move. And this is considered another 

property of matter; its being unable to move or 

being mer< is another property. It is called by a 

hard name. I will write it. Inertia. You may all 



Lesson XXXIX.] 113 

repeat it Inertia. This is the property of not being 

able to woi'e, or of being inei't or inactive. What 

is Inertia? Charlie? Inertia is the property of being 
unable to move. 

Inertia is a very curious property of matter. Let us 
look at some instances. When a boy is standing on a 
sleigh or in a buggy that is not moving, and all at once it 

is caused to move rapidly, what happens? Fred? He 

is caused to fall over backwards. Very good. And this is 
because his body while at rest, has no power to put itself 

in motion. Of course, we mean without moving the 

feet. Again, when a boy is on the back of a horse that is 

standing still, he has to be careful if the horse moves 

suddenly or quickly, or he would .Jail off. (Here 

perform this experiment. Place a card two or three 
iriches square on the tip of the finger. Then place a large 
cent on the card, balanced so as not to fall off. As you 
hold it out on the finger, give the 'card a smart tap with 
the second finger of the right hand, let go from the thumb. 
The card will fly off and leave the cent immediately resting 
on the finger.) Now all watch what I do. Why did the 
cent not fly off with the card? Why did the card not 
carry the cent off on its back ? It was resting on the card. 

Annie ? You moved the card, but imparted no motion to 

the cent ; so it remained on your finger because it had no 
poicer to put itself in motion. 

Now I will also tell you that this property of m,aUer 

which we have called inertia means more than this. 

After a body is put in motion it is impossible for it to stop. 

Well, Sam, I see your hand up I do not thinhso. Roll 

a ball on the grass and it very soon stops. Wait a moment, 
Sam ; not so fast. Does the ball stop, or does something 

else stop it? The grass stops it. And if you were to 

roll it on ice, it would roll for a very long time, or 

distance. But, at last, because it rubs against the ice, 

on account of the earth so strongly attracting it, and 

also since it is resisted by the air through which it 

moves, the ball would stop. But if it were away 

off in clear space, and were set in motion, you can 

15 



114 [Lesson XL. 

easily see that it would never stop, until something 

stopped it. And so, when a horse is running fast with a 

person on his hack, if a dog or bear were to frighten 

him so as to make him stop very suddevly, the boy 

would most likely, unless agood rider, go over his head. 

When we say that Inertia is a property of matter 

we not only mean that resting bodies cannot move, but 

also that moving bodies cannot rest. I will write the 

definition on the blackboard. Inertia is the property 

OF MATTER BY WHICH BODIES AT REST CANNOT PUT THEM- 
SELVES IN MOTION, AND BODIES IN MOTION CANNOT REST. 

We will repeat it. Inertia is that property of viatter 

by which bodies at rest cannot move or put themselves 

in Tuoiion, and bodies in motion cannot rest. 

What is this propertf called? James ?...It is called Inertia. 
(This property can be illustrated very beautifully by 
what is called the " doubling " of a hare when pursued by 
hounds.) 



OEAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XL. 



Human Anatomy — Arteries of the Body. 



Now all your attention must be concentrated on our 

lessoji. I am going to tell you, to-day, the names of the 
most important Arteries in the body. 

When we speak of the circulatory system we mean the 

system of bloodvessels v^hxch. contain the bhod, and 

circulate it through the body. It consists (See No. 



Lesson XL.] 115 

XX.) of, 1st Theheart,2di The arteries, 2>di The 

capiUary vessels, and 4th The veins. You must always 

remember that the blood flows from the heart through 

arteries, and TO it through veins. 

The first artery that we will name is the large one that 

leads from the left ventricle of the heart. (Here 

you may rapidly revise No. XXIL) It is called the 
Aorta. I have written it. We will place the names, as 

they occur, upon the blachboarcl. All answer this 

word Aorta. What about it? Ella? The aorta is 

the largest artery in the body. It conies from the left ven- 
tricle of the heart. On leaving the heart it bends and 
passes downwards through the trunk of the body. Its 
name, again, is the aorta. 

Now, as the aorta passes downwards, it sends oflf emaller 
arteries which pass around between the ribs, to the front of 

the body. These are named from the fact that they 

run between the ribs. The word that means " between 

the ribs " is Intercostal. Then these are the inter- 
costal arteries, which run from the aorta, around the 

body, between the ribs. 

As the aorta extends downwards still farther it gives off 

other branches. These, because they pass to the loins 

are called the Lumbar arteries. The word lumbar means 

belonging to the Zo/«s, which is that part of the 

body near the " small " of the bach. 

We have now three names. Anna, give the first 

The aorta is the large artery and comes from the left ven- 
tricle of the heart. Charlie, the next..... The intercostal 
arteries are those that run between the ribs. Mary, the next. 

The lumbar arteries run to the loins. Very well. At 

last the aorta, after traversing the trunk, separates into 

two branches. These two are named from the scientific 

name of the thigh bone, which is called the Femur. (See 
No. XVIII.) They pass down on the inner sides of the 
thigh bones, and are called the Femoral arteries. The 

two branches of the aorta, then, that pass down 

through the thighs are called the femoral arteries. 

At the knee each femoral artery separates again into 
two -parts, one of which is called the Anterior and 



116 [Lesson XL. 

the other the Posterior Tibial arteries. They receive 
these names from one of the bones of the leg, the Tibia. 
(See No. XVIII.) The Posterior Tibial Artery runs down 
BEHIND the Tibia, and the Anterior Tibial Artery before it. 

Now we will again revise before proceeding. First we 

have the aorta, 2dL the intercostal arteries between 

the ribs, 3d the lumbar arteries running to the 

loins, 4th the femoral arteries' in the thighs, 5th 

the anterior and posterior tibial arteries. These divide, at 

the ankles, into smaller branches extending to the toes. 

The arteries of the toes are called Digital arteries. Those 

of the fingers are also called digital. The Latin word 

Digit means a finger. So the arteries of the fingers and 
toes will most likely be called digital arteries. 

Now we will go back and name those arteries that pass 

upwards and to the arms. From the aorta two 

branches pass up through the neck, called the Carotid 
arteries. (Accent on the second syllable.) Let us all 
repeat these names as I point to them Aorta; Inter- 
costal ; Lumbar; Femoral; Anterior Tibial; Posterior 
Tibial; Digital; Carotid. 

Next we have those that supply the arms with 

blood. The artery of the arm first passes beneath the 
collar bone or Clavicle, (See No. XVIII.) and is hence 

called the Subclavian artery. Sub, you know, means 

under and Subclavian will mean, passing under the 

clavicle. 

Then as it passes down the upper arm, it is called the 
axillary artery. (Accent on first syllable.) Let me hear 
these last two names from all subclavian and axil- 
lary. This artery, in the arm, is called, as it passes 

under the clavicle the subclavian artery and in the 

upper arm the axillary artery. 

The axillary artery, at the eZJow, (point to the elbow, 

and when you require such an answer always use a gesture, 
to keep the attention and indicate your answer ; only those 

who are looking can answer,) separates into two 

branches. One follows the Ulna and the other the Radius, 

the two bones of the lower arm. (See No. XVIII.) 

Hence they are called the Ulna and Radial arteries. 



Lesson XL.] 117 

All repeat. They are the Ulnar s^nd Badtal 

arteries. They receive these names from those of the 

bones of the lower arm, the Ulnar &nd Radius. 

We have already said that the arteries from the 

wrist to the finger-ends are called Digital. 

And now we will rapidly recapitulate. The blood flows 

from the left ventricle oi the heart into the aorta; 

from this branch off the intercostal arteries which lie 

between the ribs. Then it also gives off the lumbar 

ar^mes going to the loins; next it separates into 

two parts, the femoral arteries, which in their turn, 

separate and form the anterior and posterior tibial 

arteries, and these form also the digital a7teries of the 

toes. Proceeding upwards to the neck are the 

carotid arteries ; and passing under the clavicle or collar 

bone are the subclavian arteries, which in the upper 

arm, take the name of axillary arteries ; these, at the 

elbows, separate into two brariches each, one called 

the Ulnar artery, and the other the radial. They 

get these names from those of the bones of thearm, 

which are the ulna and radius. The ulnar and radial 

arteries at length form the digital arteries of the.... arm. 



118 [Lesson XLI. 



ORAL TRAmmG LESSON. 

NO. XLI. 



The Arts — "Weaving. 



When we spoke of Memory we stated that it would be 
quite impossible to remember a thing in which we take no 

interest, or do not understand. Now you will 

demonstrate that you take an interest in our lesson, 

if you give good aite7iiiun. 

What we know about anything is called a science, 

(See No. XXXII.) and what we do, depending on that 

science, ia called an art. Then an art is a method of 

doingr something. The art of painting is the art or 

way of making .pictures by pai?iting. It is one of 

the Fine Arts. And you would call a man who practices 

the Fine Arts an artist. What is an artist? Carrie? 

(She repeats.) 

To-day our lesson is ou one of the Arts, the Art of 

Weaving. This, you know, is the art of making cloth. 

I called it the art of weaving. The instrument with 

which cloth is made is called. . . .a loom. In large manu- 
factories they operate a great number of looms. 

Then we will first speak of the difierent things of which 

cloths are m.ade. Books are made of .paper. And 

the paper is called by a certain name because the book is 
made of it. The paper is called the ? Let me write 



Lesson XLL] 119 

the word. Material. The paper is the material of 

which the hook is made. Annie, of what material are 

combs generally made? Combs are tnade vf India 

rubber and horn. And the horn or rubber we call the 

material oi which the combs are made. And cloth 

is manufactured of certain kinds of w^aterial. 

Now you can all understand that substances like sand or 
sawdust would not do to xa?tke....^. cloth. What kind of 

materials or substances are used ? Only those that are ? 

There is a woi'd which means consisting of long hairs. It 

is Fibrous. This means consisting of .fibres or 

hairs. Cloth, then, can only be made from substances 

that are .fibrous, or consist of fibres. Willie, repeat 

that. (He repeats.) Well, you may now raise hands to 

mention substances that are .fibrous, of which cloth 

is made. Mary ? Cotton. Sam ? Wool. Ellen ? 

Hair. John? Grass of some kinds. Yes, coarse 

cloths called stair-cloths are made from grasses, 

Emma? Flax. Sarah? Silk. Well, that is enough. 

Hands down. We may say that anything that is 

fi.brous can be manufactured into cloth. Or, inverting 

our sentence, all kinds of fibrous substances, or, the 

other word materials, c-a.n be used for manufac- 
turing cloth. 

We said in one of our former lessons (See No. XIX.) that 
all those substances which are derived from the organs of 

animals and plants are called organic. Now raise 

hands those who can tell me whether the materials used 

are Organic or Inorganic. Libbie? They a7'€ organic. 

Then we will introduce this word into our statement. All 

organic m,aterials that are.... .fibrous are suitable for 

weaving. Who will repeat this? Annie, you may 

do so. (She repeats. Call on others for a full statement.) 

Now you have doubtless often heard a building called a 
a FABRIC. Raise hands those who have. Well, I see that 
some have. Hands down. Anything made in a loom, 

that is, any kind of article that is woven is also called 

by this name, a .fabric. When it is nice and fine, it 

will be a delicate .fabric, but such articles as staircloths 

or carpets would be coarse .fabrics. The name fabric 



120 [Lesson XLI. 

then is often given to articles that are woven, or made 

in a horn. Mary, repeat that. (She repeats.) Alice, 

what kicd of fabric would you call silk? iSilh is a 

beautiful delicate fabric. And muslin is also a delicate 

fabric. Besides being delicate, since they are woven, they 
are called, as I now write. Textile Fabrics. Delicate 

textile fabrics are generally more expensive than 

coarse ones. 

Now, let us review. What we know is a science, 

and what we do is called an art. Our lesson to-day is 

about the art of weaving, or of making oloth. Cloth 

is manufactured in an instrument called a loom. Those 

substances of which we make cloth are called the 

materials ; and cloth cannot be made from such materials 

as sawdust or sand, but from .fibrous materials. 

Since these materials are derived from the organs ot plants 

and animals, they are called organic. You may 

now supply these three words. Cloth is made of 

fibrous organic materials. Anything woven is said to be 

textile. Cloth is a textile fabric. Such things as 

carpets are very coarse fabrics, while muslin, or crape, 

or fine silk is a delicate fabric. We will continue this 

lesson at another time. 



Lesson XLII.] 121 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XLII. 



History — Career of Napoleon. 



To-day we are to have a lesson in History. 

Everything that happens to nations, and to the most 
remarkable men, is written down and called by this name. 

It is called History. Let me write a good definition, 

or meaning of the word History, on our blackboard. 

History is a record of remarkable events. If I 
speak of United States History, I am talking of the 

record of events that occurred in the United States. 

And what would we mean, Fannie, by a history of Minne- 
sota? A history of Minnesota would be a record of events 
that happened in Minnesota. 

We are to speak of some events in French History that 
are connected with the life of Napoleon. He was one of 

the Emperors of France. His life was very remarkable 

and is equally interesting. Who are we to speak of ? 
Hands up. Harry ? (He repeats the subject.) 

Does any one know when and where Napoleon was born ? 
I will tell you. He was born in the city of Ajaccio, 
(pronounced A-yat-ce-o,) in the Island of Corsica, which 

is in the Mediterranean, and belongs to France. 

James, repeat that Napoleon was born i?i Ajaccio, in 

16 



122 [Lesson XLII. 

Corsica, an island in the Mediterranean belonging to 
France. Raise hands all who can repeat it. Well, hands 
down. We will go farther. 

This was more than one hundred years ago. He was 
born in the year 1769. When he was about sixteen years 

old, he was sent to a military school, to learn to be a 

soldier. This school was in Brienne, a city near Paris. 

Napoleon, we will repeat, attended the military school 

at Brienne, a city of France, near the city of 

Paris. While there, he often signalized himself by his 
bravery and skill during sham fights. Batteries were often 

constructed in winter, of snow. Then, the storming 

party with Napoleon at their head as leader, never failed 

to defeat their opponents, and capture their batteries. 

In this way he acquired a taste for the life of a soldier. 

And so he joined the army. Yes, he joined the French 

army, and very soon had excellent opportunity of showing 
his talents — his military talents. 

Ail repeat. We are now speaking of Napoleon; he 

was born in Ajaccio, a city of... ...Corsica, an island in 

the Mediterranean Sea, in the year 1769. When 

about sixteen, he entered the military school at 

Brienne, a city near Paris. While there he often 

showed his skill and courage when storming the 

snow batteries of the opposing.... .force. 

Now, I will tell you that shortly after he joined the 

French arm,y, he had to accompany the troops to a city in 
the South of France. Its name is Toulon. (Pronounced 
Too-lon^. The g only faintly.) The French troops were 

besieging the city of Toulon. A little incident occurred 

here which showed his appreciation of bravery. He was 
dictating a dispatch to a sergeant who was writing on a 
drum-head, when a cannon-ball came whizzing past and 
tore away the ground just beside them, causing some sand 
or dust to drop on the paper. Instead of showing any 
signs of fear, the sergeant simply remarked to Napoleon, 
" we won't need any sand (or blotter) on this document." 
For this evidence of heroism Napoleon afterwards procured 
his promotion. 

Shortly after this he was called to the Capital of France, 



Lesson XLIL] 123 

to Paris, to take charge of the government troops, 

against the revoluionary forces. Here he gained a brilliant 
victory with a mere handful of men against a force ten 
times as strong. On this account he received command of 
the French army which had been fighting in Italy. It had 
met with very little success ; but, on the other hand, it had 

been many times defeated. The entire army, when 

Napoleon took charge of it, had been driven almost to the 

summits of the mountains that separate France from 

Italy. (Point to each on the map.) They are called 

the Maritime Alps. Those who composed the 

army, away up among the glittering summits of the 

3faritime Alps, were almost perished hj......cold and 

famished with hunger. They had no heart to engage 

in battle. This was because they had not a good leader. 

For a leader, they were now to have Napoleon. When 

he took charge of the army he addressed them thus : " My 
good, brave fellows, I am sorry to find you so uncomfort- 
able and miserable. But cold, hunger and exposure, form 
the school in which good soldiers are trained. Follow me, 
I will soon lead you on to comfort, plenty, fame and 
victory ! " Now what effect do you consider that words 

like these would have? George? I think that the 

soldiers would take courage and fight bravely. Well, that 
is just what they did. 

The first thing that Napoleon did was to make up apian. 

In war a plan is called a ? It is called a Stratagem. 

The Austrian and Italian army had now followed them to 

the mountains that lie between France and Italy. So 

Napoleon thought that the best thing that he could do 
would be to go round quietly and get between them and 

their own country. They could not then get any 

supplies, or any help, or assistance. Well, they rushed 

down the mountain slopes ; and their manoeuvre, or as I 

called it before a stratagem succeeded so well that they 

entirely defeated the Austrians, and Italians. 

They then captured the city of Turin, and at length they 
got possession of all the fortresses of Northern Italy. 

In order to continue this narrative, we will have to wait 
till we can put it in another lesson. 



124 [Lesson XLIII. 

All review rapidly. Our lesson is about Napoleon. 

He was born in Ajaccio a, city in the island of 

Corsica. He was educated in the military school of 

Brienne, a city near Paris. He distinguished 

himself after he joined the array; first, at the 

siege of Toulon, and second, at an engagement near 

Paris. He was then placed in command of the French 

army that was operating in Italy, lie found them 

almost starved axidi discouraged, but soon led them 

on to victory. 



OML TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XLHI. 



Chemistry — Acids, Bases, and Salts. 



We have before stated that such substances as wood, or 

soap, which are composed of different kinds of "matter, 

are said to be compound ; but others, like iron, being 

only one kind of .. .Tnatter are. . .simple. (See No. XXXVIII.) 

Raise hands those who have seen limestone. Well, I see 
that you all have. T have a piece of marble here, which 

is pure limestone. When limestone is burned in a kiln, 

it becomes lim.e. Now is there any difference between 

limestone and lime? George? When water is poured 

on lime it produces a different effect to that caused when 

poured on limestone. James ? The Ihne is lighter than 

limestone. Harry? lAme is softer than limestone. 

Now what is it that makes thi» change in the limestone 
while in the kiln ? I wish you all to raise hands who can 



Lesson XLIIL] 125 

tell me what the change is that the limestone undergoes 
when it becomes lime. 

What do you say, Harry? The fire dries the water 

out of the limestone. Let us see whether this is so or not, 

Harry. He says that while in the Iciln the heat expels 

the water from the limestone, or dries it, thus 

converting it into lime, and causing it to become much 

lyjhter. Now, Harry, if this were so, by pouring 

more water on the lime, after taking it from the hiln, 

we could restore it to its former condition, causing it to 

again become limesto?ie. But George said a few 

moments ago that this would not happen. Does lime 
become limestone when water is poured upon it, George ? 

iV^ sir, if crumbles and dissolves, while limestone will 

not do that. Then we have proved that it is not by drying 

out the water ihaX limestone becomes lime. Well, 

how is it ? As there are no hands up, I will tell you. I 
will always give you facts, but let you draw your own 
conclusions. 

The limestone is found to be composed of two substances. 
The first is that v/hich is taken from the kiln after it is 

burnt. It is the lime. The second is a gas. It is the 

same as one of the gases that come forth in our breath. 

(By a gesture they will understand what answer to make 
here.) It is called Carbonic Acid Gas, The first we 
called Lime. Now who can tell me the names of the two 

substances that compose limestone ? Libbie Limestone 

is composed of Lime and Carbonic Acid. 

By its name you see that this gas is an Acid. I will be 
able to tell you better what an acid really is in a future 
lesson. Acids, like vinegar, are distinguished by a sour 

taste. This gas which we called carbonic acid gas 

also has a sour taste; but as it is a gas it is only slightly 

sour. Still, it is an acid. Then the lime with which 

this «c/c? combines is called the Base. So an acid is 

said to combine or unite with a base. You may repeat 
that, Mary Ana/:id is said to combine with a base. 

When lime combines with carbonic acid, which is the 
acid, and which the base? Hands up. Eddie? Car- 
bonic Acid is the acid, and lime is the base. And what 



126 [Lesson XLIII. 

would you call the limestone, whicli is formed of these 
two ? Let me write it. It is called a Salt. That which 
is formed of an acid and a base is called a salt. Lime- 
stone, then, is a salt. 

You have all seen common salt. As its name shows, it 

is a salt. Then it must be composed of an acid and 

a base. Then, is it simple or compound ? Ella? It is 

compound. Now, I will tell you that the acid which 

combines with a base to form common sail is not 

properly an acid. But it takes the place of an acid, and 

therefore we will call it an acid. It is called Chlorine, 

and the base is called Sodium. The chemical name of salt 
is Chloride of Sobium. This is the best name, for it 
shows the name of the acid and also the base. 

Now for a rapid review. The acid of common salt is 

Chlorine, and the base is /Sodium ; the salt which they 

form is Chloride of Sodium, which is another name for 

common salt. Limestone is also a sail, although 

it does not dissolve like common salt. In it the acid is 

carbonic acid, which is a kind of gas ; and lime ia 

the base. And, generally, we say that an acid combines 

with a base, to form a salt. Who will repeat this ? 

George ? An acid combines with a base to foryn a salt. 



Lesson XLIV.] 127 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XLIV. 



History— Five Great Nations of Antiquity. 



I suppose that you all know that the oldest history that 
we have is contained in the Bible. This book tells us of 

the oldest nation of which we have any history. It 

was a great nation and had very powerful kings. It con- 
tained some immense cities we are told in the bible 

where we find its history. But they have been destroyed 

and no longer exist. Not even their ruins are to be 

seen. They have been buried beneath the sods of ages. 

The people of this nation are no longer known as a 

nation, and perhaps do not exist at all. What nation was 
this ? The oldest nation of which we read in the Bible ? 
Hands up. 

I see that no one can tell me. All listen attentively. It 
was the Babylonian Nation. Or, simply, Babylon. It 
also had another name. Assyria, The first name I gave 

you, all answer Babylon or, the other Assyria. It 

was in that part of the world which is called Asia Minor. 
Do you remember the names of any of its cities ? George ? 

Babylon was one. Yes, and another was Nineveh. 

Babylon and Nineveh were the two largest cities 

in the kingdom of Babylon or Assyria. This was 

the oldest nation of which we have any history. 



128 [Lesson XLIV. 

At length this kingdom was overthrown by another that 

that also was very powerful. It has likewise ceased to 

exist. It was the Persian kingdom. Let me hear it 

from all The Persian Kingdom. "What about it, 

Alice? It was the second kingdom of antiquity. Did 

I say so? No sir. Well, George? You said it con- 
quered the Babylonian kingdom. \ ery well. Now I will 
tell you that before it arose to power and eminence, another 
nation had arisen in the northern part of Africa, in this 

country Egypt. (Point to it on the map.) What 

would you call the name of this kingdom ? Hands up. 

Frank? It would be called the Egyptian Tcingdoin. 

Eight. I will also place this on our blackboard, Egyptian. 
This was the second kingdom. 

First the Babylon ian ; 2d the Egyptian ; an d 

3i the Persian, Vihich. conquered the Babylonian 

kingdom. The first and third were in Asia; the 

second was hi Africa. 

Then there were still two others. They were both in 

Europe. (Pointing to it.) One was in this country 

Greece. What will we call it? Emma? It is the 

Grecian kingdom or nation. It had a great King, who 

conquered all the rest of the world, and then cried because 

there was nothing more to conquer. His name was 

Alexander the Great. Well, Sam, I see your hand up. 

Did lie conquer the United States? No, Sam, he did 

not. The people of our country came from Europe 

since the discovery of America. But Alexander lived 

many hundreds of years before this. He conquered all the 

world that was then Z;?ioww, which was only portions 

of the Eastern continent. Each of these kingdoms 

in its turn conquered the rest of the world. 

After some time another nation arose which conquered 

the Grecian 7iation, as well as the rest of Europe. 

It received its name from the city that was the Capital of 

the Empire,, this city Pome. Hence it was called the 

Roman nation. Let me write it with the others, 

Roman. It was during the existence of the Roman Empire 
that our Saviour was born. Christ was born in a country 
that belonged, as all others did, to Pome. He was 



Lesson XLV.] 129 

born in Palestine. The Roman Empire was so power- 
ful that Rome was called " The Mistress of the World." 
Let me see how many will remember this quotation from a 
celebrated poet : 

" Where Rome, the Mistress of the World, 
Of yore, her eagle wings unfurl'd." 

What do you think, Sam, is meant by " unfurling her 

eagle wings ?" / supj^ose they had an eagle as we have, 

for a national emblem. That is correct. 

Now let us recapitulate. The first of these five 

kingdoms of antiquity was the Babylonian ; 2d 

the Egyptian; 3d the Persian, which conquered the 

Babylonian; 4th ike Grecian; 5th the Roman. 

The Babylonian was also called the Assyrian. One of 

the kings of the Grecian kingdom was Alexander the 

Great. And it was during the time of the Roman 

kingdom, that Christ was born. 



ORAL TRAITslNG LESSON. 

NO. XLV. 



Manufactures — Brocaded Silk — Jacquard Loom. 



The materials used for producing cloth, (See No. XLI.) 
are derived both from the vegetable and animal king- 
doms. Those derived from the latter, the animal 

kingdom are the most important. Perhaps the most 
valuable is the one of which we will speak to-day. Silk. 

Of the countries of Europe the most noted in the produc- 
16 



130 [Lesson XLV. 

tion of silk fabrics is the one to which I now point 

France. In the south of France, mulberry bushes on 

whose leave the silk-worms -/eec/, grow abundantly, and 

the climate is neither too cold nor too warm for raising 

the silk-worm themselves, or for producing the finest qual- 
ity of. . .silk. Just at this point, where the Saone flows into. . . 

the Rhone, v;hich you would call their confluence, is 

situated the city of Lyons. Repeal that, Harry. (He 

repeats.) Raise hands all who can. The two whose hands 
are not raised, Angus and Emma, will remain at recess, 
when ' I will assist them to prepare this statement upon 

their slates. All repeat together Lyons is at the 

confluence of the Rhone with the Saone. It is in the 

southern .part of France. This city was the most 

celebrated in all Europe for a very long .period for the 

production and manufacture of sillc. Kate, you 

may now state all about Lyons. 

The particular kind of silk made there was known as 
Brocaded Silk. Let me hear these two words from all 

Brocaded silk. Raise hands all who know what 

brocaded silk is, Hattie ? It has flowers on it. Painted 

on? I do not know, sir. Does any one know? 1 will 

tell you. It has the appearance of having flowers and 
other patterns, or designs, in relief, or raised up on its 
surface, while it is really perfectly smooth. You may 
repeat this, George. (He does so.) 

Brocaded silk was formerly exceedingly difiicult to 

make or manufacture. The loom in which it was ■ 

made was very imperfect. Those parts called treadles, 

which are usually moved by th^- feet had to be operated 

by children. This was a very unfortunate thing for these 

children, both physically and intellectually, that is 

both for their bodies and minds. For they could not 

attend school, having to work all day, and some 

two or three being required for each loom. But this 

was not all. From being in this position all c?ay, the 

chest became contracted or drawn together, which 

induced disease that ended in death. No silk- weaver, 

for this very reason lived over thirty-six or forty years. 
This was a very sad thing. The children, you see, would 



Lesson XLV.] 131 

grow up, witii weak, sickly hoiHes and undeveloped 

and ignorant minds. 

At length the Emperor proposed to bestow a great 

reward upon any one who would invent a loom that 

would not require the children's labor. Several men 

went to work on the problem. The successful man was 
Marie Joseph Jacquard. This skilful Frenchman 

invented a loom such as was required. It made the 

finest kind of brocaded silk, and relieved the chil- 

elren from their labor. 

But we are now about to see the sad effects of ignorance 
upon people, however skilful they may be in the Arts. 

These silk-weavers of Lyons reasoned very falsely 

about the matter. They concluded that it would make 
them much poorer — poor as they were already. They said 

" If this new loom, makes more and better s/7/t, and 

and does not require the aid of children, it will lower 

the ])rice of silk and we will starve." And, however 

unaccountable it may appear to us, they actually forcibly 

took Jacquaid's loom out of his Aome and burnt it 

on the public square. Who can state again what happened 
to the Jacquard loom, and why ? Carrie ? (She states it.) 

In a future lesson I will tell you other interesting facts 
about these things, as I have not time in this lesson. But 
before we close, let us review. Of the materials used for 

weaving, that are derived from the animal Tcing- 

dom, perhaps the most expensive is sillc. Of the cities 

of Europe, that most celebrated for the m,anu- 

facture oi brocaded silk -wsis Lyons, at the con- 

fuenceoi the Rhone and Saone, in southern France. 

Here a loom wsis.... invented by a man named.. .Jacquard, 

and called from him the Jacquard loom, which obviated 

the necessity of employing children. But by the 

ignorance of the silk-weavers the first Jacquard loom 

was forcibly taken and burnt. 



132 [Lesson XLVI. 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XLVI. 



Astronomy — The Solar System — Asteroids — Orbits. 



The Sun and the planets that revolve around it are 

called by a name which I will place on the blackboard. 

The Solar System. Let me hear it from all The 

Solar System. Solar means "belonging to the sun," and 

this system of worlds is called the Solar system 

because they revolve round the Sun. The planet on 

which we live is called the Earth. Between it and 

the Sun are two planets, the first of which is Mer- 

oiry and the second Venus. (See Nos. XXIV and 

XX VIII.) They are at a less distance from the Sun 

than the Earth, and are therefore called inferior 

planets. 

Then after passing the Earth, we find those that are 

called superior. The first of them, which is fourth in 

order from the Sun is called liars. The fifth is 

Jupiter; it is the largest of the .....joZawe^s. Sixth is 

Saturn. Seventh.. — Herschell, which was called after 

its discoverer. And the eighth, which is the last of 

the planets is Neptune. 

Now I suppose that you imagine that these planets are 
all at regular distances from each other. And those who 
think so are correct. Their distances apart are regulated 



Lesson XLVI.] 133 

by a fixed law. The distance gradually increases from 
each planet to the next beyond it. But during the course 
of observation it was found that the distance between Mara 

and the next beyond it, that is Jupiter, was twice as 

great as it should be, to conform to this law. But no 
astronomer was able for a long time to find in this space 

any flanet. But at last an astronomer named Piazza 

discovered a very small .planet in this region. It was 

80 small that it excited much curiosity. Consequently 
observers weie all on the lookout, and in another year, 
another astronomer named Olbers discovered another. 

Then were found two others. In a few years, a great 

number were found, all in this space between Mars 

and Jupiter. "We now know of about one hundred of these 
small planets. They are called Asteroids. I wish to 

hear this word from all Asteroids. The Asteroids 

revolve round the Sun as the other .planets do, and 

as we have just said are found between Ifars and 

Jupiter. 

Now, does it not seem strange to see so many yery small 
planets where there should only be one ? How do you 

account for this ? Well Sam, what have you to s;iy ? 

T'erhaps it was 01 Jy one planet once, and was blown to pieces. 
"Well done, Sam. That is what the most celebrated Astron- 
omers think. I will tell you that some of these planets 

which are called Asteroids are so small that a man could 

jump up to a distance of sixty feet from the surface, if he 
could stand on one of them ! On our Earth, the Attraction 

of Gravitation (See No. XXXVII.) is so powerful 

that a man could not jump up more than two or three 

feet from the ground. But there are asteroids so 

small that the Attraction of Gravitation on them 

becomes very slight. It becomes so slight that we could 

jump up sixty feet from the ground. A western 

farmer could almost cultivate the whole surface of one of 
them if there is a proportionate amount of water surface 
to that which we have on the earth. 

The last point to which I call attention is this : "When 
a ship sails thr'ough the water do you think she leaves 
such a track behind her that another could follow her next 



134 [Lesson XLVII. 

day ? No sir. She leaves no track or .path. So 

you have heard of the " trackless ocean.'' Now, do you 
think that a planet leaves any path as it revolves round the 

Sun? JVo sir. But you can imagine one. And the 

imaginary path which a planet follows in revolving round 

the Sun is called its ? It is its Orbit. What is 

the orbit of a planet Bessie? A planet's orbit is the 

imaginary path that it makes in going round the Sun. 

Now let us review. Between Mars and Jupiter, we 

find a greater distance than that which we would 

expect, judging from the distance of the other planets. 

In this space we find a number of small .planet$ 

called .... Asteroids. They number nearly otie htaidred. 

They are supposed to be fragments of a larger .planet, 

which has been blown to pieces. We have also noticed 

that the imaginary .path, of a planet in its revo- 
lution round the Sun, is called its orbit. 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XLVII. 



The Arts — Reduction of Metals from their Ores. 



You can all doubtless tell me the name which is given 
to such substances as iron, copper, tin, lead, zinc, &c. Raise 

hands all who know it. Annie? Metals. What about 

them ? Iron , copper, tin, lead and zinc, are called onetals. 

Who can mention others? Henry? Brass is a metal. 

Well, it is a combination of several metals. Kate? 

Silver and gold are metals. Yes. George ?...v' 



Lesson XL VII.] 135 

Quicksilver is a metal. Is it in any way different to the 

others? Yes sir, it is a liquid metal. 

Now can any one tell me where we obtain metals ? Are 

they in the form of metals when they are found ? They 

are found in the ground. Yes, that is true, but do people 
find iron all ready made for use ? I see you cannot now 
tell. Let us investigate the matter from what you already 
know. When we allow a piece of steel or iron, such as an 
axe or a saw, to remain outside exposed to the weather for 
several weeks, we find it at last all covered over with what 

we call rust. Repeat this, Eugene. (He repeats.) 

Now, what is rust ? Hands up. Does no one know ? You 
know the name of the principal gas in the atmosphere. It 

is oxygen.. In explaining the nature of flame (See No. 

XXI.) we said that fire is caused by the union or 

combination of this oxygen with the substance which 

burns. Now, rusting of metals is a species of burning. 

The metal combines with oxygen and forms what we 

call rust. Then rust is merely some metal combined 

with oxygen. "Willie, you may now state to the school 

what IRON rust is Iron rust is iron combined xoith oxygen. 

Bessie, what is zinc rust? Zinc ru^t is zinc combined 

with oxygen. (Ask for other similar cases.) 

Now I will inform you that iron and the other useful 

metals are always foiind in this cotidition or state; 

that is, combined with oxygen or some similar sub- 
stance. When the iron is in combination with oxygen it is 
called OxYD of Iron. What would you call lead and 

oxygen in combination? George? Lead afid oxygen 

xuould form oxyd of lead. And so it would also be with 
other metals. 

Well, the iron, zinc, lead and other metals having 

been exposed to the weather and especially exposed to the 

oxygen, have all changed to ru^t or ? The 

other word that I just now wrote on the board was 

oxyd. We mean by this, Harry, that these metals 

have combined with oxygen. But we sometimes find them 

combined with other substances such as Carbonic Acid. 

This gas, when combined with iron forms Carbonate of 



136 [Lesson XLVII. 

Iron, wliich is very much like Oxyd of Iron, (Ask for 
this statement.) 

I will now try whether you can answer another question. 
If I were to find a quantity of oxyd of iron somewhere on 
the ground, how could I contrive to extract the iron from 

the rust? You tell me that the rust consists of iron 

and oxygen. Now how could I expel the oxygen and retain 

the iron? "Well, Eddie ? By heating it. But I will 

inform you Eddie that heating it, alone, no matter how 
strongly, would not do. This would only tend to keep it 
more firmly in the condition of rust. When a blacksmith 

heats a piece of iron until it becomes red, or even 

white, small scales of this substance rust, continually 

drop off while he hammers it. While the iron is hot 

it very readily combines with oxygen of the air. 

The hotter it is, the more readily will it co^mhine. Now 

if we keep on making the rust hotter, do you think it 

would ever change back to iron ? No sir. No, because 

this is the very best means of changing the iron into 

rust; and if even a particle were to become iron again, in 

the intense heat, it would immediately again combine 

with oxygen and form rust. But it could not, 

under these conditions, change back again into iron. 

Now what do you think of this, Eddie? It is quite 

evident that this will not do. Your answer, however, 

was good, as it indicated attention. Has any one a differ- 
ent view ? Well, I will allow you all to investigate this 
until we have another lesson on the subject. (Here review 
the former part of the lesson.) 



Lesson XL VIII.] 137 



OEAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XLVIII. 



Natural Science — Trade "Winds. 



We stated in our lesson on "Wind (See No. XXV.) that 
it ia caused in the following way : The air at the earth's 

surface becomes heated, and consequently 

expanded. When expanded, since it occupies more 

space'ii becomes much lighter, and therefore rises; 

at the same time the surrounding air rushes in to 

supply its place. (Use gestures here.) 

Now, from what you know of Climate, where would you 

expect this cause to affect the air most? George? At 

the Equator it would affect it most. Correct. Those 

countries that lie between the tropics of Cancer and 

Capricorn are called intertiopical. In intertropical 

countries, the heated air is continually rising to 

the upper regions of the air. 

Now, all may raise hands who can tell me how its place 

is supplied. Willard? The cooler air of the temperate 

regions rushes in and takes the place of that which ascends. 
Very good. We can now pass on to our next point. 

One of the Earth's motions is round its own axis. It 

rotates on its axis once in twenty-four hours. Now 

I want you to listen carefully to my next question. (If 



138 [Lesson XLVIII. 

you have a globe illustrate it,) If we take one point any- 
where at the Equator, and a second point say one mile 
from the North Pole, which point moves the faster of the 
two? Angus? BecsiTefnlhow yon SbUBwer?... The first point 
moves the more rapidly. Why do you think so, Angus? 
Never make a statement unless you have a reason for it. 

The first point goes 25,000 miles in 24 hours, while the 

second one goes only about three Tniles in the same time ; 
therefore the first must move m,ore rapidly. Then you would 
conclude that the farther we go from the Equator, the more 

sZoit'/y does each point move. Bessie, repeat this. 

(She does so.) 

And, in the next place, since the air moves around with 

the land or water on which it rests, the particles of air 

towards the Poles will move more slowly than those near 

the Equator. For this reason, the air which rushes in 

from the temperate regions, when it comes near the 

Equator, XQ.niil he \eh behind. People living near the 

Equator, therefore, would find the air moving back in 

a direction opposite to that in which the earth is rotating. 

Who can tell me the direction in which the Earth 
rotates ? I will tell you. It rotates from West to East. 

The sun appears to move from East to West, on account 

of the earth's motion being .from West to East. A 

point, then, at the equator, moves towards the East; 

and if the air coming from the temperate regions is 

left behind it will be moving over the surface, appar- 
ently, from East to West. Or, a man at the Equator 

would say that the wind was blowing from the East. 

This wind, at the equator, blowing from East to West, 

receives the name of Trade Wind. It probably receives 

this name because it is so advantageous to trade or 

commerce. (Now call on different individuals to state 
what Trade Winds are, where they blow, and their causes.) 

In consequence of these trade winds, which blow 

from East to West, in the regions on each side of 

the Equator, a ship leaving this city in Mexico, called 

Acapulco, (point it out on the map of the World,) can sail 

completely across the Pacific Ocean to the continent of 

Asia with a fair wind all the way. Well, Sam, I see 



Lesson XLIX.] 139 

your hand raised, what is it? / cafit see how the ship 

can get hack again, if it is always blowing from East to 
West. Well, this shows me that we have one boy, at least, 
who THINKS. Can any one tell Sam how the ship would 
return ? As there are no hands raised I will tell you, Sam. 
The navigator is aware of the fact that at iiome distance 

North of the Tropic of Cancer, (point to it,) these 

winds which we call trade winds, do not prevail, or do 

not bloio. Other variable winds blow here, and ships 

returning to America, do not sail in the region of the 

trade winds, but return by sailing farther North., 

We will continue our lessons on Winds at some other 
time, and will then find some strange and interesting facts. 
We will now review our lesson. (Here rapidly review.) 



OEAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. XLIX. 



Chemistry — Generation of Carbonic Acid. 



You are all satisfied that those who do not give their 

best attetition cannot learn or answer. Then 

you may all prepare to give your attention by sitting in 
the proper .position and looking this way. 

Eaise hands all who can remember how we proved that 

wood is made of various kinds of matter. Robbie? 

We proved it by analysis. Right. We analyzed the 

U'oof? by means of heat; that is, we separated it into 

the difierent substances of which it is comp)osed or 

mxide up. We proved in this way that it is. . .compound. 



140 [Lesson XLIX. 

We also referred in the same lesson (See No. XLIII.) to 
limestone. Those who remember whether it is simple or 

compound may raise hands. Sarah? Compound. At 

first you thought it was simple, or made up of only 

one kind of matter. I told you however that it is 

com.'pound. We will now describe it. 

Raise hands all who have ever seen lime. How is it 

made ? Angus ? lAmestone is burned in a hiln for some 

hours., and when taken out is found to he lime. Your 
answer is good. Now I wish to ask you what changes the 
limestone to lime ? The heat. How? Do you remem- 
ber our lesson on Acids, Bases and Salts? (See No. XLIII.) 

Henry? By (hiving off the carhonic acid into the air. 

Yes, limestone is composed of two substances, which 

are lime and carhonic acid gas. And by heating it in 

a kiln the carbonic acid is driven off, or expelled, 

and therefore nothing but the lime rem,ains in the kiln. 

I am now prepared to show you another mode of pro- 
ducing this gas from limestone. The lime, you say, is 

combined or united yf^Wh. the carhonic acid. They 

like each other, apparently, very much; or they are 

said to have a very strong Affinity for each other. 

Repeat my statement, Ella Lime and carbonic acid 

have a strong affinity for each other. Now, if I can place 
with limestone some substance which likes the lime better 

than it is liked by the carbonic acid with which it is 

already combined; we repeat, if we can find some other 

substance that has more or greater ? What word 

did I use just now ? Here we have it on the blackboard, 

affinity for the lim.e than the carbonic acid has, 

this substance, you would expect, would instantly unite or 

...... cowJme with the /ime, and allow the carbonic 

acid to escape, or go free. 

Let us further illustrate. Charlie and Harry are firm 
and steadfast friends. They are always in company. On 
some fine day they walk down the street. As they pass a 
certain point, Frank, one of Charlie's old friends, whom he 
knew in the East ten years before, is observed coming up 

the other side of the street. Now raise hands those who 

think they know what would happen. John? Charlie 



Lesson XLIX.] 141 

would leave Sarry and run over to meet FranTc. Very 
good. And now let us make our statement again about 

the limestone. It consists of Ivme and carbonic 

add; if, however, we introduce some other substance, 

which the lime prefers to the carbonic acid, at once the 

lime leaves the car bo7iic acid, to unite with this new 

substance and the carbonic acid being a gas, escapes into 

the air. The new substance introduced I will here tell 

you, is called Hydrochloric Acid. James, you may now 
describe this process again. (He does so. Do not leave it 
till all can.) 

(Procure a glass jar with with a neck from one to two 
inches in diameter. Fit a cork to the neck. Perforate the 
cork and pass through it a glass tube that exactly fits in 
the orifice. Bend the tube in the flame of a spirit lamp so 
as to make it lead downwards. Now place some pieces of 
limestone, or marble, in the jar, and pour upon it about a 
tablespoonful of Hydrochloric Acid diluted with twice as 
much water. Then insert the cork and tube. The carbonic 
acid, after all the common air in the glass is expelled, will 
issue abundantly. It is so heavy that it can be collected 
in glass or other vessels, such as tumblers, at the extremity 
of the tube. It can even be poured from one glass to 
another. A candle-flame may be extinguished by pouring 
it gently from a glass upon the flame. A lighted candle 
attached to a wire and lowered into a glass of carbonic acid 
is immediately extinguished.) 

Now let us revise. We have just described another 

process for generating or .producing the gas which ia 

contained in limestone, which is carbmiic acid. We 

introduce some substance which likes the lime 

better than the carbonic acid does. This substance is 

hydrochloric acid. It combines with the lime and 

allows tJie carbonic acid to escape ; it passes out through 

this bent tube. 



142 [Lesson L. 



ORAL TRAINING LESSON. 

NO. L. 



Natural Science — Light and Heat — Refraction, 
Reflection and Absorption. 



You will all remember that we named three things in 
Nature that are considered to have no weight. They 

are said to be iviponderable. What are they ? Harry? 

Light, Heat, and Electricity. (See No. XXIX.) 

What about them ? Annie ? They are the three impon- 

derahle bodies of Nature. Eaise hands all who will make 
the complete statement. Ella? (She makes it.) 

Now our principal source of light and heat is the 

sun. The sun sends off or emits its light and heat 

in straight lines called rays. The word which means 

"to send off in rays" is radiate. Frank, you may 

state this again The sun radiates its light and heat. 

We are now prepared to extend this subject further. 

When the rays of light or heat pass off from any 

source such as the sun, you can see that they will 

proceed in their course until they are interrupted. Kepeat 
this Eddie. (He repeats.) Well, in what ways may they 
be interrupted? I will tell you. They are interrupted 

by meeting objects. When a ray meets an object it is 

interrupted, that is, its progress is interfered with. 

This is done in three diiferent ways that we will now 
proceed to consider. 



Lesson L.] 143 

When a ray of light or heat comes in contact with any 
object, three things may happen to it. What are they ? 
All think carefully. Let me direct your thoughts. When 

the rays of light from a lamp-flame strike the glass 

chimney what becomes of them ? Do they stop there ? 

No sir. They pass through. Do they pass through any- 
thing besides the glass? 8am? They pass through the 

air. That is correct. We have now taken one step. There 
is a name given to a substance that will allow rays to pass 
through it. Raise hands those who can give it. I will 
write it. It is called a medium. What is a medium ? 
George ? (He states it.) 

The air, then, is amedium for the rays of light 

or heat. So also is glass; that is, these substances 

allow rays to .pass through them. Do you know of any 

others ? Fannie ? Is water a medium f I will ask all 

who think it is to raise hands. Can you see through 

water? I see nearly all hands raised. Water is. a 

medium. Now, water is thinner than glass, and air is 

thinner than water. Then if air is thinner than water, 

the water, when compared with the air, is more ? 

When speaking of the air, we said that in the upper 

regions it is very rare, and at the earth's surface it is 

dense. We now wish to use these two words. Air is 

thinner or rarer than water; and the water would 

be, on the other hand, more derise than air. Of the 

three, glass, water, and air, the glass is densest and the 

air the rarest. 

Now I will tell you that when a ray passes from a rare 

medium into a dense one, it is bent towards the 

DENSE ONE. But the word that is used instead of bent is 

Refracted. The rays are refracted or bent towards 

the dense medium vihen they pass into it from a 

rarer one. And this bending of the rays is called Refrac- 
tion. Emily you may now tell me what Refraction means. 

But a piece of iron would not be a. medium; it 

would not allow the rays to pass through it. What 

then would become of them? When a rubber ball is 

thrown against a hard surface it rebounds. Well, 

Frank? The rays would rebound. Well this is one 



144 [Lesson L. 

tiling that might happen. And I will tell you that this is 
called Keflection. When the rays strike a surface, they 
Sire sometimes... reflected. Reuben, repeat this. (He repeats.) 

Still another effect. When a ball is thrown against a 
surface of water or mud, what then? Does it rebound ? 

Ho sir. What happens when water is placed about a 

sponge? Ella? T/ie sponge absorbs the wafer. Very 

good. Ella has just used the word we want, I am now 
writing the word. Absorption. Sometimes when rays 
strike an object, they are absorbed, and this absorb- 
ing of the rays is called absorption. A substance 

which is black, for instance, absorbs more heat than one 
which is white. Thus in summer it is more comfort- 
able to wear white clothes than black. 

All now answer rapidly. When rays of light or heat 

meet an object, they are either allowed to .pass 

through or are reflected or obsorbed. The substance 

which allows them to pass through is called a 

medium. And when they pass from one Tnedium into 

another, they are said to be refracted. All may 

repeat these three words. 1st Hefraetion; 2d 

Reflection; and 3d Absorption. 



INDEX 



Absorption of Oxyseu 62 

Absorption ol Light 145 

Acids, Bases and Salts 124 

Adai>tation * 

Afferent Nerves 45 

Affinity. Chemical 12i-134 

Aids for Memory 3G 

Air, rises when heated 74 

Ajaccio 121 

America discovered, how 9 

Analysis 110 

Apparent Motion 21 

Art and Science 94. 114 

Arteries CO, 118 

Arterial Blood 77 

Association 36 

Asteroids 132 

Astronomy 19, 70, 82, 94, 10.5, I:i2 

Attraction 37, 10.') 

Auricles of Heart 65 

Axis of Eartli 21, 46 

Babylonian Nation 127 

Bases 125 

Black Hole of Calcutta (i 

Boiling Water, temperature of, . . . '"' 

Brocaded Silk 130 

Camel, its stomach 100 

Capillary vessels 60 

Carbonic Acid o4' breath 78, 125 

Carbonic Acid, how generated. .125, 140 

Card experiment 113 

Carjras 54 

Chemical Combination 

Chemical Action a source of Heat. . 42 

Chemi.stry 31, Gl, 109, 141 

Chlorine and Chlorides 126 

Circulation discovered by Harvey.. 58 

Circulatory System 60, 64 

Circumnavigation 9 

Clavicle 54 

Claws of Cat. — Sheaths C 

Climate 1, 9 

Columbus' discovery 8 

Combustion 41, 86 

Compartments of Heart 65 

Complicated 91 

Composition of Air 61 

Compressed 18 

Conipressibility of Air 97 

Compound Bodies 110 



Condensation . 30 

Conduction of Heat 81 

Congeal 30 

Contract 38 44 

Convection of Heat 81 

Coi-puscules or Globules 59 

Degrees in a circle 48 

Dense 18 

Detract 39 

Dewdrops are round 107 

Dilute 32 

Discs. Globules of Blood are 59 

Displace 104 

Distance from Equator a cause of 

Climate 50 

Distract 39 

Double 92 

Down, what it means 106 

Earth appears flat. 7 

Ea "til's globular form 9 

Ettects, judging from 26 

Efferent Nerves 44 

Egyptian Nation 128 

Elasticity of Air 97 

Electricity a source of Heat 42 

Electricity a source of Light 87 

Elements of Climate 2 

Elevation above sea level 50 

Emission of Light 15 

Equator, where drawn 47 

Evaporation 29, 67 

Expansion by Heat 15, 74 

Expansibility of Air 96 

Expended, Heat how 68 

Experiments, use 36 

Explicit 92 

Extremes of Temperature 3 

Eyes of Cat 5 

Fabrics 119 

Feeling, the third sense 23 

Feet of the Cat 5 

Femur, Femora 53 

Ferdinand and Isabella 9 

Fibula 53 

Friction, a source of Heat 41 

Functions of Organs 12 

Gaseous Form 29 

Gay Lusac's Experiment 69 

Globular Form 10 

Globules of Blood 59 



146 



INDEX. 



Gravitation 107 

Grecian Nation 128 

Habit 5 

Height of Atmosphere 17 

HerscheU 83 

History 121, 127 

Humerus 51 

Imply 91 

Implicated 91 

Imponderable 86 

Inclination of Earth's Axis. ....... 47 

Inertia 112 

Inferior Planets 72 

Inorganic Bodies 57, 119 

Interest cultivates Memory. . . 35 

Intertropical countries 50 

Invisibility of Air 96 

Iron vessels float 103 

Jacquard Loom and Silk 130 

Jupiter, a god 83 

Ligaments 53 

Light — Rapid Motion 85 

L'niestone, its Composition. .. .125, 141 

Liquid Form of Matter 16, 28 

IjUnLis and Respiration 66 

Luxuries of Life 98 

Lyons and Silk Weaving 130 

;Mars, a god 83 

Matter, its forms 28 

j\iechanical properties of Air. 16, 25, 31 

Medium of Light or Heat 145 

Memory, a Faculty 34 

Mercury, a god ,. ... 71 

Meta, beyond 53 

Metacai'pus 54 

Metals, how obtained 134 

Metatarsus 53 

INIoisture 2 

Motion 113 

Motions of the Earth 20, 46 

Moon is a Planet 70 

Multiply 91 

Napoleon's birth-place 121 

Necessaries of Life 99 

Neptune, a God 84 

Nerves carry sensations, etc 24 

Nitrogen of Air — Use 32, 44 

Orbits of Planets 134 

Organs of Human Body... 11, 12, 13, 55 

Organic Bodies 56, 119 

Oxydof Iron 135 

Oxygen absorbed by blood 77 

Oxygen of Air 32, 62, 111 

Passage to India 9 

Passage westward across Pacific. . . 138 

Perceives 24 

Percussion a source of Heat 42 

Persian Nation 128 

Phalanges 53, 54 

"Pillars" of the Earth 8 

Planets 71, 82, 132 

Pressure of Atmosphere 17 

Prevailing Winds 2 



Prey of Animals ..:... 5 

Proportion of Gases in Air....^... 32 

Protract '. . . . 39 

Proximity of Laud or Water a cause 

of Climate 51 

Radiation of Light and Heat 97, 142 

Radius 54 

Rare 19 

Reflection 145 

Refraction 145 

Reply 91 

Respiration 76 

Rest 113 

Retract 88 

Revolutionary Motion 20 

Roman Nation 128 

Roots— Traho 37 

Roots— Plico 90 

Rotatory jNIotion 21 

Salts, how formed 126 

Salubrious Climate 3 

Saturn's Rings 83 

Scapula » 54 

Science and Art 93, 118 

Sensations 23 

Senses of the body 22 

Sight, the first Sense 23 

Silk weaving 130 

Simple 92 

Simple Bodies 110 

Smelling, the fourth Sense 24 

Sodium, Chloi'ide of '. . . 126 

Solar System 70, 82 

Solid Form of Matter 28 

Solid Liquid and Gaseous Forms. . 16 

Sounds, how produced 88 

Sternum 54 

Subtract. 39 

Superior Planets 72, 82 

Tarsus 53 

Taste, fifth Sen4e 24 

Teaching and Training 102 

Tears are Globes 107 

Teeth of Cat 5 

Temperature, high or low 1 

Termination, Terminus 37 

TextUe Fabrics 120 

Thirty-two feet Column 27 

Tibia 53 

Toulon 122 

Trade Winds 137 

Triple 92 

Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. . 48 

Vapor, produced by Heat 69 

Variable Winds 75 

Veins 60 

Ventricles of Heart 65 

Venus, a goddess 71 

Venous Blood 73 

VertebriB of backbone 52 

Vibration 88 

Weight of Air 17, 95 

Wind 73, 137 



